Performance Arts in Zimbabwe: Setting the Agenda for Peace and Development

Abstract

Using purposively selected works of Zimbabwean artists posted on YouTube, and the public comments on this content, this article demonstrates the agenda-setting capabilities of performance artists, particularly those anchored on theatre, music and poetry. It does this by analysing how the artists set the agenda for peace, economic equity, political justice, social harmony and development in Zimbabwe. The paper notes that performance arts have been vital cogs in supporting and strengthening interventions aimed at achieving peace and development in the country. On the other hand, the comments section on social media sites was viewed as a ‘public space’ where people ‘converge’ to share their thoughts on various issues affecting them as raised by artists. Using document analysis and social media for observational data, this article argues that artists are critical in contributing to the peacebuilding discourse in Zimbabwe through putting important governance issues on the public agenda. The onus is on the authorities and other development partners to use this information to address the needs and the plight of the masses as a prerequisite for conflict transformation.

Introduction

All art is performative; meaning all art is, in some way, a physical act (McMahon, 1995, p. 126). The role and potential of the arts in addressing the aftermath of armed conflicts and political upheavals is not new (Kanyako, 2015, p. 106). As argued by Kanyako (2015, p. 107), much emphasis has been on the artistic importance of the arts to society, as well as their transformative potential for healing and reconciliation. However, using the case study of the United States, Hawes (2007) contended that there is insufficient information on how performance art interventions can support existing traditional forms of conflict resolution. Quoting Goldberg (1996), Hawes (2007) noted that performance art utilises a number of disciplines and media such as poetry, literature, music, theatre, dance, painting, video, architecture and it uses them in any combination. The use of art can be strategic, particularly during negotiations and mediation processes when verbal communication reaches its limits (Chambelland, 2018). Nonetheless, the ability of the arts to transform conflict must not be overstated. They can, like any other interventions, exacerbate conflict (British Council, 2019).

The central argument is that the arts are useful in advancing Zimbabwe's peacebuilding discourse through setting the agenda for peace and development by highlighting the critical issues that need redress such as corruption, rampant unemployment, political intolerance, political violence and poverty, among others. And this agenda-setting role has been enhanced by communication technologies which allow for interaction with the public. The need for healing, reconciliation and development has never been doubted in Zimbabwe, both at scholarly and policy levels. At the scholarly level, Sachikonye (2011, p. 104) argued that future studies on violence in Zimbabwe should go beyond the causes and consequences by developing a new paradigm of peace and civic studies as a foundation for a genuine post-conflict trajectory in the country. Huyse (2003, p. 36) noted that reconciliation failed in Zimbabwe for lack of public acknowledgement of what went wrong in the past. There was more of retribution than redress, and lack of progress towards economic justice (Huyse, 2003, p. 36). Moreover, the amnesties granted to perpetrators of violence helped in suppressing the truth about atrocities at national level (Eppel, 2004, p. 50). Advocates of truth were accused by government of reopening old wounds (Eppel, 2004, p. 50). Mawondo (2008, pp. 10–11) asserted that Mugabe's call to simply forgive and forget past wrongs was not a solid ground for genuine reconciliation.

The need for healing, reconciliation and development has never been doubted in Zimbabwe, both at scholarly and policy levels.

Though largely cosmetic, at the policy level there were a number of initiatives tailor-made to heal and reconcile the nation. These included the Unity Accord (1987) and the Government of National Unity (GNU) (2009–2013). After 2017, when Mugabe was dethroned by the military, National Development Strategy I (2021–2025) was hatched supposedly to address a number of concerns in order to achieve political and economic development. Governance was addressed as a thematic area that needed redress (Republic of Zimbabwe, n.d.). Vision 2030 also articulated that national cohesion was a necessary condition for a peaceful and developing a new Zimbabwe (Republic of Zimbabwe, 2018). In addition, the country's constitution had provisions for the National Peace and Reconciliation Commission to develop and implement peacebuilding programmes that encouraged people to tell the truth about the past and facilitate the making of amends and the provision of justice, while at the same time creating room for compensation and support (Constitution of Zimbabwe, 2013, pp. 118–119).

Shank and Schirch (2008) pointed out that peacebuilding practitioners need to find strategic ways of incorporating the arts into the work of peacebuilding and to create a space where people in conflict can express themselves, heal themselves, and reconcile themselves through the arts. This study responded to this call by evaluating how performance arts have spoken to the issues affecting Zimbabweans through (1) analysing the message conveyed by the artists themselves (2) examining how the audience responded to artistic expression. The study therefore attempts to assess how performance art has an influence on how people perceive issues or agenda-setting.

Methodology

This qualitative research gathered its data from particularly YouTube. This was important in (1) appreciating the role of the arts in contributing to peace and development initiatives in the country and (2) analysing the ‘interaction’ between the songs, skits and poems by Zimbabwean artists and the comments on this content. This interaction informed the deployment of the agenda-setting theory of the arts and the concept of the media as a public space. There was purposive filtering of chat box comments by selecting those that focused on peacebuilding and development, and not anything else based on considerations such as instrumental arrangement, voice, genre, etc. The words and phrases used by commenters demonstrated the extent of the emotions of the people against human rights abuses, economic meltdown and corruption. These included hooliganism, what went wrong, let's be tolerant Zimbabweans, tears filled my eyes, unite, voice of the voiceless, leader without fear, thank you for airing our grievances, bold approach, this is deep, truth pains, keep on spitting the truth, this song is talking to us as a nation, and ignorance, pride and greed left us in this mess, to mention a few. In a world that has gone digital, chat box comments provided important observational data to make the case for the authorities and other stakeholders to address the needs and the plight of the citizens.

For songs, political jingles were excluded because of their perceived bias. The names of the people who commented, even though most were pseudonyms, were not included because focus was primarily on the content of their texts. Using the concept of the media as a public sphere, the comments section represented the voices of the people and therefore a legitimate source of gathering pertinent data for this type of research. The study sample was determined by purposively selecting content produced by artists from different categories with a focus on peace and development. Any other content was excluded from the sample. The sample consisted of 17 Zimbabwean artists representing the different categories of performance arts. Minor changes were made to the comments made by the public that had spelling errors without distorting the meaning of the text. Otherwise, there was no attempt to look into grammatical issues. Vernacular was translated by the author. Data was analysed thematically.

Conceptual and Theoretical Framework

Shank and Schirch (2008) noted that there is very little solid theory, research or evaluation of arts-based peacebuilding. The authors thus came up with the concept of ‘strategic arts-based peacebuilding’ to articulate how the arts have been important in helping communities to wage conflict non-violently, reduce direct violence, transform relationships (which they described as the key principle of all peacebuilding programmes) and building capacity. This article uses a modified interpretation of the agenda-setting theory of the media, here named agenda-setting role of the arts to articulate how Zimbabwean artists, through their daily interaction with the citizens and an understanding of the Zimbabwean political and economic situation, used their influence to drive the agenda for peace and development. Modified in the sense that artists do not necessarily create issues the public thinks are important as the media does but mainly raise and amplify existing issues, thereby setting the agenda on those issues (Shank & Schirch, 2008). The term agenda-setting first appeared in the landmark study conducted by McCombs and Shaw in 1972. The central claim of the agenda-setting theory is that the media focuses the public's attention and influences the public's perceptions on what it considers to be the important issues of the day. This article sets out to demonstrate how strategic the arts have been in setting the agenda for social harmony, political justice and economic equity in Zimbabwe.

This article sets out to demonstrate how strategic the arts have been in setting the agenda for social harmony, political justice and economic equity in Zimbabwe.

Agenda-setting remains a vibrant theory that continues to illuminate what issues we perceive as important and how we perceive them (Johnson, 2014). The ability to influence the salience of topics on the public agenda has come to be called the agenda-setting role of the media (McCombs, 2004). Agenda-setting in Zimbabwe is still primarily controlled by the ruling party/state using state-owned media and other communication platforms. However, such narratives have been challenged by anti-government civil society activists. Songwriters, theatre personalities and film makers have often provided the counter-narrative and attempted to set the agenda.

In addition, the concept of the media as a public space was deployed to explain how the communications revolution has enhanced participatory cultures and widened the scope of the participation of the public in governance issues. It has been argued that digital technology has democratised the public sphere (Carlsson & Weibull, 2018). In this article, we note that the internet and social media sites represent public spheres in Africa in terms of creating new and important opportunities for public interaction, networking and information sharing. This makes them important in stimulating debate on critical human security issues.

The Context of Artistic Expression

The emergence of artists who commented on the prevailing socio-economic and political conditions in the country (and by default seemed critical of the ruling Zimbabwe African National Union Patriotic Front) needs to be understood within the prevailing socio-economic and political conditions which exists in the country as articulated below.

Human Rights Violations, Economic Collapse and Corruption

Most of the artists under study herein lived at a time referred to by scholars as the Zimbabwean crisis. It, though arguable began in 2000 and was marked by a political crisis and intermittent periods of recovery and shocks but largely by the later. Since independence, the ruling party embarked on sustained and calculated attacks on opposition politicians (including supporters and sympathisers), civil society and journalists considered pro-opposition (Mutanda, 2019a, p. 184). The Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace (CCJP) in Zimbabwe and the Legal Resources Foundation (1997) documented the gruesome human rights abuses that happened mostly in the Matabeleland regions and some parts of the Midlands province between 1982 and 1987. Popularly known as Gukurahundi (early rain that washes the chaff away) massacres, and described by Maxwell Zhira (2004) as a ‘sustained terror campaign’, the campaign signalled the dictatorship that was to follow. The conflict started when bands of ‘bandits’ started killing civilians and destroying property in the western half of the country. The government responded with a massive clampdown that targeted the dissidents and the civilians who were thought to be supporting the rival party, the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) (CCJP and Legal Resources Foundation, 1997, p. 3). The conflict resulted in the deaths of thousands (claimed to be 20,000 by then ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo) of unarmed civilians. Others were tortured, beaten, raped and suffered loss of property at the hands of the dissidents and government agencies (CCJP and Legal Resources Foundation, 1997, p. 3).

The Zimbabwe Human Rights Association or Zim Rights (2020) asserted that Zimbabwe has a history of political violence, experienced largely in times of elections. An upsurge in security sector brutality and unprofessionalism led to vociferous and repeated calls for security sector reform in Zimbabwe (Mutanda, 2019b, p. 139). A well-functioning security sector is fundamental to a country's success and prosperity. If a security sector is incapable of performing its core functions (protecting both the state and the communities) because of a lack of resources or because it has lost legitimacy with parts of the population, then any existing political crisis will be exacerbated and potential new crises created (Chuter, 2011, p. 3).

There is overt intolerance in Zimbabwe when it comes to the expression of particularly economic and civil and political rights. The lack of political tolerance contributed to an increase in the incidents of direct violence. This intolerance led to killings, hate speech, intimidation, torture, discrimination and revenge-seeking. This makes it imperative for policy makers to prioritise the mending of relationships as a prerequisite for the development, prosperity, cohesion, unity and transformation of the country (Mutanda, 2019a, p. 188). Artists lamented the rise of the incidences of violence as discussed later in this paper.

There is overt intolerance in Zimbabwe when it comes to the expression of particularly economic and civil and political rights.

On the economic side, the collapse of the economy was visible through the deterioration of the health sector (Mutanda, 2022), the proliferation of roadside informal foreign currency trade and severe hyperinflation (Mawowa & Matongo, 2010), a debilitating brain drain and widespread unemployment (Dansereau, 2005, p. 7; Mlambo, 2006, p. 58). The political crisis had negative effects on the economy since the turn of the new millennium (Masaka, 2013, p. 326). Corruption, on the other hand, weighed down the economy. Transparency International Zimbabwe (2020) described corruption as a big problem in Zimbabwe. Those who dared to publicly criticise the government were punished, mostly through imprisonment. Examples included opposition figures such as Jacob Ngarivhume (jailed for 4 years for allegedly inciting public violence) and Job Sikhala (sentenced for 6 months for obstruction of justice), Fadzayi Mahere (jailed for communicating falsehoods prejudicial to the state and the law) and journalist Hopewell Chin’ono (incitement to commit public violence; ENCA, 2023; The Observatory for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders, 2020).

Todd Moss (2007) viewed Zimbabwe as a unique case of a country driven into the advanced stages of collapse, not by war or natural disaster, but by the deliberate acts of its own leaders. This included but was not limited to violent and ad hoc land seizures, urban clearances of 2005 (popularly known as Operation Murambatsvina-clear the filth), organised violence, price controls, printing money and attacks on the leaders of world powers (Moss, 2007, p. 141). Ndhlovu and Santos (2022) added that members of the political elite abused power for personal accumulation of wealth. This was further supported by journalist Hopewell Chin’ono when he said, ‘This country even with the looting that they are doing, if they were doing the right things for our country, they would still loot and we would still have a better life…’ (In Conversation with Trevor, 2020).

Drug and Substance Abuse

Research done by Matutu and Mususa (2019) showed that peer pressure, the breakdown of the family support system, limited knowledge about the effects of drug abuse and stress were the major factors that drove substance and drug abuse among the youth. The Zimbabwe Republic Police launched crackdowns against drug abuse, smuggling and trafficking (Zimfact, 2023). Still, such operations were largely futile because they did not address the root cause of the problem such as failing to deal with the source of the drugs, lack of sustained campaigns to curb the problem and the reasons why the youths took harmful drugs and substances. The majority of patients who were admitted at psychiatric units of hospitals were substance users (The Associated Press, 2020). These rehabilitation centres were short-staffed. ¹ It was against the prevalence of the challenge of drug abuse that artists took up important roles in educating the public about the dangers of drug and substance abuse. It is also worth noting that although the artists took up important roles in campaigning against drug abuse, some fell victim to drug and substance abuse, and others even glorified the use of drugs and substances (Kufakurinani & Mwatwara, 2017, p. 40). Examples of victims of drug abuse were Tryson Chimbetu, Soul Jah Love, Saint Floew and Master H, to mention a few.

Artists, Agenda-Setting and Peacebuilding

Tolerance and Harmony

In view of the prevalence of human rights abuses, the need for tolerance and harmony was given utmost priority by performance artists in Zimbabwe. Their messages fed into the narratives of discontentment that the citizens had over many issues such as deteriorating political freedoms. Art emerged as an important instrument for collective reconciliation between communities, and it was equally useful for individuals to overcome any trauma linked to conflict (Chambelland, 2018). Art was particularly important in Zimbabwe where the state had remained silent in the midst of rampant human rights abuses and economic upheavals.

Art was particularly important in Zimbabwe where the state had remained silent in the midst of rampant human rights abuses and economic upheavals.

In the song ‘Hosana’, sungura (considered to be one of the original genres in the country) musician John Chibadura begged the Almighty to bless Zimbabweans so that they lived in peace and harmony, ‘Hosana komborera vana veZimbabwe tigare zvakanaka, …tirege kupondana…Pane vamwe vane moyo yeutsinye (God bless Zimbabwe so that we live in harmony, …so that we do not kill each other…There are people who are evil in this country)’ (Patso, 2011). Although most comments on the song such as, ‘This masterpiece was released around 1985, rest in peace Mr Chitungwiza (as the artist was affectionately known)’ were about the lyrical genius of John Chibadura, it was viewed by some as a reminder of the consequences of political violence in the country. This was seen in the comments such as, ‘This song was a prophecy that Chibadura did here, looking at my country we have hooliganism due to political indifference. God bless Zimbabwe’. Other comments were, ‘Old but still relevant today!’, ‘Zimbabwe you were supposed to be a great nation. What went wrong?’ (Patso, 2011). The need for tolerance and harmony in communities was noted by John Paul Lederach (2007, p. 16), ‘…where the shackles of violence are broken we find a singular tap root that gives life to the moral imagination: the capacity of individuals and communities to imagine themselves in a web of relationship even with their enemies’. This means conflict disrupts many facets of life, which makes it imperative to make effort to mend broken relationships. As noted by Shank and Schirch (2008), artists can wage conflict non-violently through raising awareness about latent local issues and conflicts.

The agenda-setting theory of the media stipulates that repetition is important in order to raise issues high on the political, public, and personal agenda. In the context of the arts, poet Abel Mauchi, among other artists, articulated and repeated the consequences of political violence in Zimbabwe in his poem ‘Pamusoro penyaya (Because of what happened)’ where he narrated the dynamics and effects of politically-motivated violence in the country using the presidential run-off election that happened in 2008. Mauchi expressed the need for peace when he said, ‘Takatambudzwa zvikuru pamusoro penyaya dzematongerwe enyika. Ko runyararo rwunheiko? (We were heavily persecuted because of politics. Why can’t we be peaceful?)’ (Cotrad Zimbabwe, 2019a). Commenters agreed with Mauchi on the issue of political violence, ‘This guy is chronicling a very sad story. Let's be tolerant Zimbabweans’, ‘Tears filled my eyes. Sad indeed’, ‘2008 pakafiwa zvedi (there were indeed painful deaths in 2008), great poem Mr Mauchi’ (Cotrad Zimbabwe, 2019a). Again, Abel Mauchi in his poem ‘Mhirizhonga Kwete (No to violence)’ condemned violence in the country as he implored communities to embrace each other (Cotrad Zimbabwe, 2019b). As an issue is repeated, it gains visibility, and becomes a matter of concern (McCombs & Shaw, 1972). There is belief that repetition determines impact, meaning a single message does not yield any significant change (Limpf, 2019, p. 45).

Unity and Cohesion

The important aspects of unity and cohesion gained the attention of artists. In the song ‘Zimbabwe’ by Tongai Moyo, there was encouragement for unity of purpose as a prerequisite for national development, ‘…tikabatana nyika inokura iyi…tikava nerunyararo nyika inokura iyi…hatidi kushorana, hatidi kutukana, hatidi kupondana, hatidi kuvengana (If we unite, Zimbabwe can be a great nation, we do not want hatred, divisions and violence)’ (Patience Fumirwa, 2022). Divisions, especially along party lines were common in Zimbabwe. As observed by Ndlovu-Gatsheni and Benyera (2015, p. 13), belonging to different political formations was enough to provoke hatred and violence in Zimbabwe. This led the citizens to view unity as an important component of national healing, reconciliation and development as seen in the comments on the song by Tongai Moyo, ‘Man this should've been the national song something to unite people RIP Dewa’ (Patience Fumirwa, 2022). Lederach (2007) pointed out that, ‘The artistic process has this dialectic nature: It rises from human experience, then shapes, gives expression and meaning to that experience’. When Tongai Moyo released ‘Zimbabwe’, he was giving meaning to Zimbabwean challenges through music, thus making sense of the role of artists in setting the agenda for peace and development.

Musician Thomas Mapfumo emphasised the importance of African unity and cohesion in his song, ‘Vanhu vatema (Black people)’. In the song, he said, ‘Vakomana kana tiri tose iwe, tinokunda nhamo dzakawanda, vakomana kana tikabatana iwe, tinokunda nhamo dzedu tose, Africa kana tiritose iwe, tinokudza mhuri yedu yose… (If we unite as Africans, we can solve many of our problems and be a great continent)’ (Takari, 2021). The importance of unity and cohesion as espoused by Mapfumo was seen in the comments section, ‘Mukanya (Mapfumo's totem-monkey in English) is a genius. If only African leaders would listen to him’, ‘I respect this man he is a prophet everything that we are going through now he said it way back through his music Mr Mapfumo you're a legend’, ‘Championing of the United States of Africa! This is sweet to my ears and heart’ (Takari, 2021). From this perspective, art can communicate and transform the way people think and act (Shank & Schirch, 2008). Social media became the space where people could express their feelings.

Zimdancehall artist Seh Calaz lamented the economic turmoil in the country. In the song ‘Letter to the President’, he called on the country's leadership to be sincere in addressing the problems in the country, ‘…tafa nenzara misha yaparara, nema drugs mayouths ese aparara, takwangwaya makangonyarara…izvi hazviko…I am proud to be Zimbo…kana takakanganisa ruregerero…taneta nenhamo haiwa tavabhoo…ko tikabatana ko tikanzwanana, handioni chakaipa marudzi akadanana (we are struggling with poverty, the youths are into drugs, and we have not heard from you…this is catastrophic. I am proud to be a Zimbabwean, if we made mistakes, please forgive us because we are struggling. Why do we not unite and live in harmony?)’ (Seh Calaz Music, 2021). In all these problems, Seh Calaz saw national unity, seen in this critical question, ‘chanetsa chiiko? (what is the problem?)’ as important in overcoming a number of them. The strategic role of artists in this regard was noted by commenters, ‘When you are an artist and you mix your musical gift with the love for your listeners you become the voice of the voiceless a leader without fear. True leadership is when you have people at heart and willing to see them changing for better thus all. Well done Tawanda’, ‘Thank you for this song. We need more like these coz it speaks of real issues we facing everyday as Zimbabweans’, ‘This song brought tears to my eyes. Well done you nailed this song. Thank you for speaking through your music. The president listened and he responded’, ‘Thank you Calaz for airing our grievances. God bless you’, ‘Powerful song. Deep meaning song. keep empowering youths’, ‘This is a mark to the true fighter. Like wat Thomas Mapfumo Bob Marley Lucky Dude (Dube) and now Leonard Zhakata did- we need more lyke this U nailed it Seh Calaz’, ‘I appreciate your bold approach my King, the voice of the voiceless. Seh Calaz’ (Seh Calaz Music, 2021).

The argument by Kufakurinani and Mwatwara (2017) that Zimdanchehall has largely promoted micro-level violence by exalting sexual, verbal and physical forms of violence is valid. The authors also importantly highlight that there some notable, albeit very limited artists who are committed to peace education. It can be argued that such trends of violence are common because Zimdancehall is not original, but just a modification of Jamaican reggae and dancehall. Zimbabwean artists have largely taken the cultures of Jamaican reggae and dancehall such as violence and sexually explicit lyrics which disregard African philosophical values rooted in Ubuntu. But the effort of the few who advocate peace and development, although these are not hard and fast targets, should be applauded.

The influential role, and otherwise indispensable nature of the arts was highlighted by Katherine Wood (2015) who noted that,

the arts tell and interpret people's stories, heal trauma victims, mend communities, give voice to women and other marginalized groups, protest injustice, provide livelihoods, educate populations, express heritage, define identity, engage youth with alternatives to violence, and humanize the ‘other’.

Artists are immersed in the society, which means they speak to real issues, either disturbing, traumatising, uplifting or empowering.

Artists are immersed in the society, which means they speak to real issues, either disturbing, traumatising, uplifting or empowering.

Actors in the Sabhuku Vharazipi comedy in ‘Elections are not Violence’ emphasised the importance of unity especially around election periods. Sabhuku Vharazipi stressed the need for peace. Co-actor Mbuya Mai John noted that violence during elections was bad for development (Sabhuku Vharazipi, 2022). The arts have been utilised for many centuries in communicating the human experience in ways that have more often than not nurtured peace (Shank & Schirch, 2008). While the arts can be used to foster peace or foment war, that largely depends on the intention of the communicator (Magak et al., 2015, p. 19). The onus is on the communicator to preach peace because what goes out to the public can only be controlled by the owner of the work.

Poverty Reduction

Zimbabwean artists were also useful in articulating the narratives of deepening poverty in the country. In the song ‘Kumawere (steep descent)’ released in 1995, Marshall Munhumumwe lamented the collapse of the Zimbabwean economy. His lyrics, ‘Nyika kwayava kuenda, hapana achaidzora kumawere kunotyisa. Hakuna chakanaka, munhu wese anoda kuzvifadza achiri mupenyu. Kuzvifadza kwacho kuparadza nyika vamwe vachisekerera nokusaziva (The direction the country is heading towards is disastrous. Those in charge do not seem to be concerned about the welfare of the majority. Some citizens do not seem to be aware of the grave situation we are in as they applaud the mess)’ (Nemaire, 2018). The public agenda was evident in the comments, ‘Nyika yave kumawere (the country is indeed on a steep descent) and it was prophecy by Marshall a long time ago’, ‘Kwakungotarisa kwazvinoperera (we will just fold our hands and see how it ends)’ (Nemaire, 2018).

Hosiah Chipanga lamented the state of affairs in the country when he said, ‘…mutengo wehuku wava kutenga zai, mutengo weimba ndoyava rent, migwagwa yava magoronga, huni kumusha huni kudhorobha, tsime kumusha tsime kudhorobha, chionaika zvaita nyika (…the money we used to buy a chicken now buys an egg, the cost of rentals are now equivalent to what we used to buy a house, the roads are full of potholes, both people in urban and rural areas now use firewood to cook, the taps are now dry and people in urban areas dig wells for water just like in rural areas, this is the state of the economy)’ (Hosiah, 2019). Comments such as ‘2022 this song hits hard’, ‘This is deep’, ‘It's true the truth pains but please keep on telling the nation the facts on the ground, thanks mukoma (brother) H Chipanga’, ‘for real ignorance, pride and greed left us in this mess of a country’, ‘Tell them Philosopher’ (Hosiah, 2019) demonstrated that the citizens concurred with Hosiah Chipanga that all was not well in as far as economic management and performance was concerned. In the song ‘Vendor’, Hosiah Chipanga again bemoaned the collapse of the economy. Resultantly, vending became a survival strategy for many. Chipanga summarised the dire situation when he said, ‘Kana zvinhu zvakanaka tinoshanda kumabasa, asi kana zvaipa munhu wese rave vendor (When the situation is normal people get employed, but when the situation is bad everyone becomes a vendor)’. This reality was supported by the citizens who commented that, ‘i really like Chipanga akanyanya anoimba zviri paground (I really like Chipanga, he sings reality)’, ‘Chipanga vapangei (tell them)’ and ‘tell them Hoseah’, (KevMaf, 2016) to mention a few. Social media became a public space for engagement and reflection.

Winky D, real name Wallace Chirumiko, was instrumental in articulating the economic struggles in Zimbabwe. In the song ‘KaSong Kejecha’, the artist lamented the economic woes in Zimbabwe such as corruption, the deteriorating health sector and the government's claims that the bond note was equal to the US dollar, ‘handisi mhondi as bond ndakitisa, one as to one Oskid usazviitisa, imaths dzipi dzauri kutiitisa, mira mafunny imwe load ndodzikisa…ini segaffer ndionesei pakadhakwa ndinosiya pava sober, saka corruption jecha, kiriniki isina medicine jecha, nzara parokesheni jecha, gaffer rese take action. (I am not a murderer but I am slaying bond notes, one as to one which exchange rate is this Oskid, do not make funnies, what type of maths is this, no more funnies because I can offload another truck of sand, me as the gaffer show me what is wrong and I will address it, corruption is a vice, clinics are without medicine, there is poverty in the locations, my supporters take action)’ (winkyonline, 2018). In the song, Winky D took it upon himself to address the challenges in Zimbabwe's economy such as corruption, power outages, fuel challenges, poverty and a suffering health care system. These challenges were given credence by the ‘comments section’ as can be noted, ‘It's great to see one of our biggest artists standing up for something. Rambai makadaro Bigman (Keep it up Bigman)’, ‘how many really getting the message here sacrificing Career standing for the ordinary man 100%’, ‘voice of the voiceless, true rasta culture’ (winkyonline, 2018). What emerges here is that Winky D was being applauded for daring to speak about ZANU PF's mismanagement of the economy when many others had skirted that musical terrain.

In his song ‘Dzimba dzemabwe (literally meaning house of stones as the name Zimbabwe means)’ Winky D and Shingai decried the state of the economy and divisions in the country, ‘My heart is bleeding…we need national healing’ (winkyonline, 2023). Shingai then came on with hard-hitting lyrics, ‘Is this the land, we cry for, usadaro (do not do that)’ (winkyonline, 2023). Winky D attended to a number of critical issues such as the ‘goat mentality’ where Zimbabwean leaders only focused on their needs without prioritising the needs of present and future generations, dictatorship, disunity, poverty and underdevelopment. The video also addressed a number of societal ills not captured in the lyrics. The citizens used the public space to concur with Winky D, ‘he talked of gender-based violence, child marriages, economic struggles, drug abuse, selfishness, corruption in 3minutes 52seconds HE IS OUR GOAT’, ‘One man who has the guts to address the current situation Zimbabwe is facing. Mupei sando dzake achiri mupenyu (Give credit where it is due). Some musicians are simply turning a blind eye’, ‘WinkyD has reached the level where he sings not to impress but to express’, ‘This song is so well crafted. Lyrically immaculate with powerful message throughout. The story of what Zimbabwe is (shouldn't)’ (winkyonline, 2023).

The poverty experienced particularly by the youths became a repeated theme among the artists, thereby demonstrating the importance of repetition in agenda-setting. In ‘Nhamo Dzangu (My sorrows)’, hip hop artiste Bling4 said, ‘…machisi nemogo ndozvega zviri muden mangu, macigarettes ndoandoputa pese pandofunga nhamo dzangu (A match box and cigarettes is all I have, I smoke cigarettes whenever I think about my problems)’ (Letter Z Music Factory, 2022). Ghetto challenges were shared by commenters who noted that, ‘Bling4 is a National treasure he always expresses what we all experience in life…its like he's jus expressing what we as ghetto yuts feel’, ‘Always speaking facts, the real struggle people are facing out there. Keep on spitting the truth and everyone will catch up with you’, ‘This guy has the ability to transform deep struggles and emotions into music. Bless’, ‘This is deep. It hits hard. Heavy track Bling4’ (Letter Z Music Factory, 2022).

In ‘Chiiko Nesu (what is wrong with us)’, Leonard Zhakata summarised Zimbabwe's problems as human rights abuses and corruption. He said, ‘Paita tsika yekungowanza kunyunyuta (people are complaining too much)…Imwe tsika yanyanya ndeyekutyisana (the other pressing problem is intimidation)…huori hwanyanya munyika yekwedu (corruption is rife in our country)’ (Leonard Zhakata official, 2022). The comment, ‘This song is talking to us as a nation. Chiiko nesu seNyika. Well done elder’ summarised how Zhakata thought as an artist concerned with nation-building and poverty reduction. In the song ‘Musandityire (I am a fighter)’, Leonard Zhakata highlighted that his struggle was about poverty reduction in the country. Magak et al. (2015) thus noted that art plays innumerable societal roles, one of which is peacebuilding. Soul Jah Love spoke about poverty in Zimbabwe in the song ‘Taneta nenhamo (We are tired of poverty)’ (SALMEAT TUNZ ENTERTAINMENT, 2021). Overall, the dire economic situation in the country was summarised by Former Minister of Finance Tendai Biti when he described Zimbabwe as, ‘the sick man of the region of southern Africa’ (ZiFM Stereo, 2023).

In the midst of these innumerable challenges, some artists tried to give some hope. Blessing Shumba had a song of hope in 2017 called ‘Zvichanaka (It shall be well)’ (Zimbabwe Arts and Entertainment, 2017). In the song again titled ‘Zvichanaka’, choral group Vabati Vajehovha started off their song with the lyrics, ‘Kana nguva yakwana zvichanaka (When time comes everything shall be well)’ (Vabati Vajehovha, 2020). The song came at a time when the nation was economically bleeding and the citizens justifiably wanted some solace and relief as seen in the comments, ‘I LOVE YOU GUYS. YOUR SONGS JUST GIVE ME HOPE. I HOPE I MEET YOU ONE DAY’, ‘When the time is right God will make it happen’, ‘Message of hope Keep it up Vabat(i), am inspired’, ‘Well done …thank you for giving us hope in these tough times’(Vabati Vajehovha, 2020). Indeed, the times were tough.

As a result of the persecution and harassment he received from the police and some members loyal to the ruling party, and in the aftermath of winning the Best African Dancehall Entertainer, Winky D wrote on his Facebook page Winky D DiBigman on 11 May 2022, ‘Thank you and may the music continue its mission to educate, uplift, heal and inspire’. Appreciation and relevance of Winky D's art was noted in this comment, among others, ‘Winky May you never stop singing May God give you good health And May God keep your mind well-nourished and sane Because you are the Goat You have spoken to our souls through the mic We appreciate We are grateful Congratulations’. This is in sync with Calum Dean's (2019, p. 306) observation that, ‘In response to emancipating the local, music can be an expression of voice. In terms of more effective forms of governance, music builds relationships. In relation to creating more equal social relations and structures, music is a form of resistance’. Art does more than entertaining people. It speaks to the inner soul.

Art does more than entertaining people. It speaks to the inner soul.

Challenges Faced by Artists Concerned with Peacebuilding and Development

Violence and Ban on Airwaves and Public Shows

When the state realised that the message of the artists resonated with popular experiences and sentiments, the artists risked banning or co-optation into the agenda of the state (Chitofiri et al., 2017, p. 70). Violence and the ban on airwaves and from holding public shows were the common challenges faced by artists perceived to be anti-government. In 2018, Winky D was attacked while performing in Kwekwe. Kwekwe was known for a violent group called Al-Shabaab which terrorised opposition supporters (New Zimbabwe, 2018). The artist went to Kwekwe at the same time he had released his song ‘KaSong Kejecha’. Again, in early 2023 members of the Zimbabwe Republic Police ordered Winky D to stop his performance in Chitungwiza (Gadyadzi, 2013). Artists have been assaulted for standing up for the rights of the public. Seen broadly, government shrunk democratic space by suppressing the rights of the citizens, and artists were strategic targets in view of their mobilising power (Magamba, 2023).

Some of the artists that highlighted the socio-economic and political conditions in the country had some of their their work banned on the airwaves. These included Hosiah Chipanga, Thomas Mapfumo, Oliver Mtukudzi, Leonard Zhakata, and Winky D, among others. Others were discouraged from holding public performances through police interference during live shows or as a result of violence from mobilised gangsters. Others had to flee the country. On face value, one would assume this had an impact on their revenue base because the artists could no longer hold shows as they used to. This also had an impact on agenda-setting, particularly on those sections of the population that mainly relied on radio for information and entertainment. Winky D, for example, drew criticism from some sections of ZANU PF supporters for criticising the party in ways that were deemed advantageous to the opposition. For example, when he sung ‘KaSong Kejecha’, part of the song went like, ‘Ndapinza 40 marori’ (winkyonline, 2018). It happened that the leader of the then biggest opposition party the Movement for Democratic Change, Nelson Chamisa, had just turned forty (40). When Winky D launched his album ‘Eureka Eureka’ in December 2022, a ZANU PF youth lobby grouping, Economic Empowerment Group (EEG), wanted him to be banned from performing his music in the country, claiming he was anti-government (Garusa, 2023). His songs, particularly the ones deemed critical of the status quo did not receive airplay. His name was also withdrawn from the National Arts and Merit Awards held in February 2023 (Zimeye, 2023). Winky D's song ‘Kasong Kejecha’ was denied airplay on state-owned radio stations (New Zimbabwe, 2018).

In August 2009, state-owned Zimbabwe Broadcasting Holdings banned Hosiah Chipanga's album, ‘Hero Shoko’ (My message), for being politically incorrect (The Zimbabwean, 2009). Commenting on the ban, Chipanga said,

As an artist I sing what I see. The society must listen if it is beneficial. Praise singing does not develop the society. Look at where we are. Everyone is suffering. (The Zimbabwean, 2009)

Jiti genre singer Baba Harare was at one time in 2023 stopped from performing in Chitungwiza for his messages that encouraged the youths to vote. The role of performing artists in raising awareness and speaking on behalf of the society cannot be disputed. But the challenges are always plenty in a semi-dictatorship like Zimbabwe where people fear to be punished for publicly speaking their views, particularly political commentary.

The role of performing artists in raising awareness and speaking on behalf of the society cannot be disputed.

In as much as the ban of content on airwaves limited the influence of artists, particularly in rural areas where internet penetration is low due to poor connectivity and costs of data, it can be argued that internet-based instruments have helped in blurring the active role of the state in the dissemination of information. This gives artists and the public opportunities to express themselves in ways they feel, particularly in articulating critical socio-economic and political issues. It is important for the citizens to be able to express their views and to communicate with each other in the public sphere without hindrance (Carlsson & Weibull, 2018). The increase in visible social movements on social media have led to assertions that people are empowered to engage in communicative action online (Kruse et al., 2018, p. 65), thereby revitalising the aspect of the public sphere defined by Habermas (1991), quoted by Kruse et al. (2018) as a place where ‘private people come together as a public’ for the purpose of using reason to further critical knowledge which, in turn, could lead to political change. The public sphere requires unlimited access to information, equal and protected participation, and the absence of institutional influence, particularly regarding the economy. Nonetheless, Kruse et al. (2018) argued that the internet and social media sites have not promoted these things. But in Zimbabwe, the internet has been important in widening the scope of public interaction.

Conclusion

This article used the concepts of the agenda-setting role of the arts and the media as a public space to provide a richer enunciation of the functions of the arts in societal transformation and development in Zimbabwe through analysing how the arts and the public have benefited from the communications revolution to articulate issues critical to peace and development. The agenda-setting role of the arts has been significantly enhanced by the advent and growth of communication technologies such as social media. This has happened through the creation of platforms for feedback from the public. This is open source intelligence which can be harnessed by the authorities to gauge the public mood, and consequently proffer sustainable solutions. Art has always influenced and invigorated the ways we perceive and interpret things. Performing artists are strategically positioned to articulate these issues. They have distinct advantages such as being members of the disadvantaged or empowered community. This gives them the vantage point from which to creatively articulate issues as they see and hear them. They can also reach out to larger audiences because of their position as influencers and popularity. Artists are thus important stakeholders whose voice should be listened to. The article recommends Zimbabwean policy makers and other stakeholders such as civil society to consider artists as critical stakeholders in driving the peace and development agenda through their work that articulates the plentiful human insecurities in the country, and some of the strategies to resolve them. It can be gleaned that artists are not isolated objects but are part and parcel of the struggling Zimbabwean community. What they say usually mirrors public sentiments, and that is evident in the comments section on social media sites and other platforms.