The introduction of semi-automated driving systems is expected to mitigate the safety consequences of human error. Observational findings suggest that relinquishing control of vehicle operational control to assistance systems might diminish driver engagement in the driving task, by reducing levels of arousal. In this study, drivers drove a Tesla Model S with Autopilot in both semi-automated and manual modes. Driver behavior was monitored using a combination of physiological and behavioral measures. Compared to manual driving, a reduction in driver physiological activation was observed during semi-automated driving. Also, performance to the peripheral detection task suffered in semi-automated mode, with slower response times recorded in this condition than during manual driving. Taken together, our data suggest that semi-automated driving might not ease safety consequences of human error. Instead, these findings suggest it might cause a drop in driver monitoring, possibly followed by a spike in automation-generated distraction.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
BanksV. A.ErikssonA.O’DonoghueJ.StantonN. A. (2018). Is partially automated driving a bad idea? Observations from an on-road study. Applied Ergonomics, 68(October2017), 138–145. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2017.11.010
2.
BaileyN.R.ScerboM.W.2007. Automation-induced complacency for monitoring highly reliable systems: the role of task complexity, system experience, and operator trust. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science8 (4), 321–348. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639220500535301
BiondiF.GoetheR.CooperJ.StrayerD. (2017). Partial-autonomous Frenzy: Driving a Level-2 Vehicle on the Open Road. In International Conference on Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergonomics (pp. 329–338). Springer, Cham.
5.
CoughlinJ. F.ReimerB.MehlerB. (2011). Monitoring, managing, and motivating driver safety and well-being. IEEE Pervasive Computing, 10(3), 14–21. http://doi.org/10.1109/MPRV.2011.54
6.
CunninghamM.ReganM. A. (2015). Autonomous Vehicles: Human Factors Issues and Future Research. Proceedings of the 2015 Australasian Road Safety Conference. 14 - 16 October, Gold Coast, Australia
7.
EndsleyM. R. (2017). Autonomous Driving Systems: A Preliminary Naturalistic Study of the Tesla Model S. Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making, 11(3), 225–238. http://doi.org/10.1177/1555343417695197
GershonP.ShinarD.RonenA. (2009). Evaluation of experience-based fatigue countermeasures. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 41(5), 969–975. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2009.05.012
10.
HarblukJ. L.BurnsP. C.HernandezS.TamJ.GlazduriV. (2013). Detection response tasks: using remote, headmounted and tactile signals to assess cognitive demand while driving. Proceedings of the Seventh International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driver Assessment, Training, and Vehicle Design, 78–84.
11.
HartS.G.StavelandL.E. (1988). Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of experimental and theoretical research. In HancockP.A.MeshkatiN. (Eds.), Human Mental Workload (pp. 139-183). Amsterdam: North Holland.
12.
HeineT.LenisG.ReichenspergerP.BeranT.DoesselO.DemlB. (2017). Electrocardiographic features for the measurement of drivers’ mental workload. Applied Ergonomics, 61, 31–43. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2016.12.015
13.
International Organization for Standardization. (2016). ISO 17488:2016. Road vehicles — Transport information and control systems — Detection-Response Task (DRT) for assessing attentional effects of cognitive load in driving. Retrieved from https://www.iso.org/standard/59887.html
14.
JennessJ. W.BoyleL. N.LeeJ. D.ChangC.VenkatramanV.GibsonM.… KellmanD. (2016). In-Vehicle Voice Control Interface Performance Evaluation (Final report. Report No. DOT HS 812 314). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), Department of Transportation (DOT), (October).
15.
LitmanT. (2017). Autonomous Vehicle Implementation Predictions. Implications for Transport Planning. Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 28. Retrieved from https://www.vtpi.org/avip.pdf
16.
MatthewsG.DaviesD. R. (2001). Individual differences in energetic arousal and sustained attention: a dual-task study. Personality and Individual Differences, 31, 575–589. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00162-8
17.
MehlerB.ReimerB.CoughlinJ. F.DusekJ(2009). Impact of Incremental Increases in Cognitive Workload on Physiological Arousal and Performance in Young Adult Drivers. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, (2138), 6–12. http://doi.org/10.3141/2138-02
OttavianiC.ShapiroD.CouyoumdjianA. (2013). Flexibility as the key for somatic health: From mind wandering to perseverative cognition. Biological Psychology, 94(1), 38–43. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.05.003
20.
OrsilaR.VirtanenM.LuukkaalaT.TarvainenM.KarjalainenP.ViikJ.SavinainenM. (2008). Perceived mental stress and reactions in heart rate variability—a pilot study among employees of an electronics company. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 14(3), 275–283. http://doi.org/10.1080/10803548.2008.11076767
21.
ParasuramanR.RileyV. (1997). Humans and Automation: Use, Misuse, Disuse, Abuse. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 39(2), 230–253. http://doi.org/10.1518/001872097778543886
22.
R Core Team (2000). R language definition. Vienna, Austria: R foundation for statistical computing.
SmallwoodJ.BeachE.SchoolerJ. W.HandyT. C. (2008). Going AWOL in the Brain: Mind Wandering Reduces Cortical Analysis of External Events. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20(3), 458–469. http://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2008.20037
StrayerD. L.TurrillJ.CooperJ. M.ColemanJ. R.Medeiros-WardN.BiondiF. (2015). Assessing Cognitive Distraction in the Automobile. Human Factors, 57(8), 1300–24. http://doi.org/10.1177/0018720815575149
27.
StrayerD. L.FisherD. L. (2015). SPIDER: A Framework for Understanding Driver Distraction. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 0018720815619074-. http://doi.org/10.1177/0018720815619074
28.
Task Force (1996). Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation, and clinical use. Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology. Circulation, 93(5), 1043-1065.
VollrathM.SchleicherS.GelauC. (2011). The influence of Cruise Control and Adaptive Cruise Control on driving behaviour - A driving simulator study. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 43(3), 1134–1139. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2010.12.023
31.
YerkesR. M.DodsonJ. D. (1908) The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation. Journal of Comparative Neurology of Psychology, 18, 459-482.
