Three different cannonical viewpoints into a 3D domain are defined to create a taxonomy of 3D displays. We then show how the information processing demands of each display viewpoint, provides benefits and or imposes costs on four categories of tasks, involving travel, image matching or situation awareness, visual search, and precise judgments. These task-display interactions are illustrated from experiments in aviation display design, battlefield judgments, and data visualization. Conclusions are offered regarding two possible ways of addressing the task-display interactions in design.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AretzA. J. (1991). The design of electronic map displays. Human Factors, 33(1), 85–101.
2.
BanksR.WickensC.D.HahS. (1998). Commander's display of terrain information: Manipulations of display dimensionality and frame of reference to support battlefield visualization. Proceedings of the 2nd Annual Army Federated Lab Symposium (pp. 69–73). College Park, MD, U.S. Army Research Federated Lab Consortium.
3.
BoyerB. S.WickensC. D. (1994). 3D weather displays for aircraft cockpits (ARL-94-11/NASA-94-4). Savoy, IL: University of Illinois, Aviation Research Lab.
4.
CuttingJ. E.VishtonP. M. (1995). Perceiving layout and knowing distances: The integration, relative potency, and contextual use of different information about depth. In EpsteinW.RogersS. (Eds.), Perception of space and motion. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
5.
EllisS. R. (Ed.). 1993). Pictorial communication in visual and real environments (2nd ed.). London: Taylor & Francis.
6.
EndsleyM. R. (1999). Situation awareness in aviation systems. In GarlandD. J.WiseJ. A.HopkinV. D. (Eds.), Handbook of aviation human factors (pp. 257–276). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
7.
FlohrE.HuismanH. (1997). Perspective primary flight displays in the 4D ATM environment. Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University.
8.
GregoryR. L. (1977). Eye and brain. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
9.
HammerJ. M. (1999). Human factors of functionality and intelligent avionics. In GarlandD. J.WiseJ. A.HopkinV. D. (Eds.), Handbook of aviation human factors (pp. 549–566). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
10.
HaskellI. D.WickensC. D. (1993). Two- and three-dimensional displays for aviation: A theoretical and empirical comparison. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 3(2), 87–109.
11.
HellebergJ. R.WickensC. D. (1999). Pilot Maneuver Choice and Safety in a Simulated Free Flight Scenario (John Helleberg's First Year Project at the University of Champaign at Urbana-Champaign).
12.
HickoxJ.WickensC. D. (1999, in press). Effects of elevation angle disparity, complexity and feature type on the cognitive mapping task of navigation checking. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied.
13.
MayP. A.CampbellM.WickensC. D. (1996). Perspective displays for air traffic control: Display of terrain and weather. Air Traffic Control Quarterly, 3(1), 1–17.
14.
McCormickE.WickensC.D.BanksR.YehM. (1998). Frame of reference effects on scientific visualization subtasks. Human Factors, 40(3), 443–451.
15.
McGreevyM. W.EllisS. R. (1986). The effect of perspective geometry on judged direction in spatial information instruments. Human Factors, 28, 439–456.
16.
MerwinD.O'BrienJ. V.WickensC. D. (1997). Perspective and coplanar representation of air traffic: Implications for conflict and weather avoidance. Proc. of the 9th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University.
17.
OlmosO.LiangC. C.WickensC. D. (1997). Electronic map evaluation in simulated visual meteorological conditions. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 7(1), 37–66.
18.
OlmosO.WickensC. D.ChudyA. (2000, in press). Tactical displays for combat awareness. International Journal of Aviation Psychology..
19.
PattersonR.MartinW. L. (1992). Human stereopsis. Human Factors, 34(6), 669–692.
20.
ReisingJ.LiggettK.KustraT. W.SnowM. P.HartsockD. C.BarryT. P. (1998). Evaluation of pathway symbology used to land from curved approaches. Proc. of the 42nd Annual Meeting of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors.
21.
ReisingJ.LiggettK.MunnsR. (1999). Controls, displays, & workplace design. In GarlandD.WiseJ.HopkinV. D. (Eds.), Handbook of aviation human factors. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
22.
RoscoeS. N. (1968). Airborne displays for flight and navigation. Human Factors, 10(4), 321–332.
23.
RuddleR. A.PayneS. T.JonesD. M. (1999). The effects of maps on navigation and search strategies in very large scale virtual environments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 5(1), 54–75.
24.
SachsG.DoblerK.HermleP. (1998). Synthetic vision flight tests for curved approach and landing. Proc. of the 27th Digital Avionics Systems Conference. New York: Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers.
25.
SchreiberB. T.WickensC. D.RennerG. J.AltonJ.HickoxJ. C. (1998). Navigational checking using 3D maps: The influence of elevation angle, azimuth, and foreshortening. Human Factors..
26.
SedgwickH. (1986). Depth perception. In BoffK.KaufmanL.ThomasJ. (Eds.), Handbook of perception and human performance (Vol. 1, Chapter 21). New York: John Wiley.
27.
SollenbergerR. L.MilgramP. (1993). Effects of stereoscopic and rotational displays in a 3D path-tracing task. Human Factors, 35(3), 483–499.
28.
TheunissenE. (1997). Integrated design of a man-machine interface for 4-D navigation. Doctoral dissertation, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Delft University of Technology. Delft: The Netherlands.
29.
VincowM. A.WickensC. D. (1998). Frame of reference and navigation through document visualizations: Flying through information space. Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Meeting of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors Society.
30.
von ViebahnH. (1998). The 4D-display. Proceedings of the 17th Digital Avionics Systems Conference. New York: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
31.
WickensC. D. (1999). Frames of reference for navigation. In GopherD.KoriatA. (Eds.), Attention and performance (Vol. 16, pp. 113–144). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
32.
WickensC. D.CarswellC. M. (1995). The proximity compatibility principle: Its psychological foundation and its relevance to display design. Human Factors, 37(3), 473–494.
33.
WickensC. D.HollandsJ. (2000). Engineering psychology and human performance (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
34.
WickensC. D.LiangC. C.PrevettT.OlmosO. (1996). Electronic maps for terminal area navigation: Effects of frame of reference and dimensionality. International Journal of Aviation Psych., 6(3), 241–271.
35.
WickensC. D.PrevettT. (1995). Exploring the dimensions of egocentricity in aircraft navigation displays. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 1(2), 110–135.
36.
WickensC.D.ThomasL.MerloJ.HahS. (1999). Immersion and battlefield visualization: Does it influence cognitive tunneling. Proceedings of the Third Annual Army Federated Lab Symposium. College Park, MD: U.S. Army Research Federated Lab Consortium.
37.
WickensC. D.ToddS.SeidlerK. (1989). Three-dimensional displays: Perception, implementation, and applications (ARL-89-11/CSERIAC-89-1). Savoy, IL: University of Illinois, Aviation Research Laboratory.
38.
WilliamsH.HutchinsonS.WickensC. D. (1996). A comparison of methods for promoting geographic knowledge in simulated aircraft navigation. Human Factors, 38(1), 50–64.
39.
WoodsD. D. (1984). Visual momentum: A concept to improve the cognitive coupling of person and computer. Int. J. Man-Machine Studies, 21, 229–244.
