This study explored 140 female youth parolees’ characterization of their relationships with their parole officers (PO), examined whether the quality of PO–youth relationships relate to recidivism, and explored the role of parental assistance in acquiring services during reintegration as a moderator of the link between PO–youth relationship and recidivism. Female youth perceived both an interpersonal and professionalism aspect of PO–youth relationship. The association between the interpersonal quality of PO–youth relationship and violent recidivism was strong and significant for those who had low parental assistance, but nonsignificant for those with high parental assistance. Implications for research, policy, and practice are discussed.
AllenJ.ChangoJ.SzwedoD.SchadM.MarstonE. (2012). Predictors of susceptibility to peer influence regarding substance use in adolescence. Child Development, 83, 337–350. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01682.x
2.
AndrewsD. A.KiesslingJ. J. (1980). Program structure and effective correctional practice: A summary of CaVIC research. In RossR.GendreauP., (Eds.), Effective correctional treatment. Toronto, ON: Butterworths.
3.
AnthonyE.SamplesM.de KervorN.ItuarteS.LeeC.AustinM. (2010). Coming back home: The reintegration of formerly incarcerated youth with service implications. Children and Youth Services Review, 32, 1271–1277. Retrieved fromhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.04.018
4.
AseltineR.GoreS.GordonJ. (2000). Life stress, anger and anxiety, and delinquency: An empirical test of general strain theory. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41, 256–275.
5.
BaumrindD. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. Journal of Early Adolescence, 11, 56–95.
6.
BilchikS. (2007). Mentoring: A Promising Intervention for Children of Prisoners. Research in Action Series. Alexandria, VA: MENTOR/National Mentoring Partnership.
7.
CauffmanE.FeldmanS.WatermanJ.SteinerH. (1998). Posttraumatic stress disorder among incarcerated females. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 1209–1216.
8.
CauffmanE.LexcenA.ShulmanE.GrissoT. (2007). Gender differences in mental health symptoms among delinquent and community youth. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5, 287–307.doi:10.1177/1541204007301292
9.
ColmanR. A.KimD. H.Mitchell-HerzfeldS.ShadyT. A. (2009). Delinquent girls grown up: Young adult offending patterns and their relation to early legal, individual, and family risk. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 355–366.
10.
ClarkM.WaltersS.GingerichR.MeltzerM. (2006). Motivational interviewing for probation officers: Tipping the balance toward change. Federal Probation, 70, 38–44.
11.
DavisM. C.MatthewsK. A.TwamleyE. W. (1999). Is life more difficult on Mars or Venus? A meta-analytic review of sex differences in major and minor life events. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 21, 83–97.
12.
DoriusC.BahrS.HoffmanJ.HarmonE. (2004). Parenting practices as moderators of the relationship between peers and adolescent marijuana use. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66, 163–177.
13.
DowdenC.AndrewsD. A. (2004). The importance of staff practice in delivering effective correctional treatment: A Meta-analytic review of core correctional practice. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 48, 203–214. doi:10.1177/0306624X03257765
14.
DowneyG.IrwinL.RamsayM.AydukO. (2004). Rejection sensitivity and girls’ aggression. In MorettiM.OdgersC.JacksonM. (Eds.), Girls and aggression. Contributing factors and intervention principles (pp. 7–20). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic.
15.
DuBoisD. L.HollowayB. E.ValentineJ. C.CooperH. (2002). Effectiveness of mentoring programs for youth: A meta-analytic review. American journal of community psychology, 30(2), 157–197.
16.
DuBoisD. L.PortilloN.RhodesJ. E.SilverthornN.ValentineJ. C. (2011). How effective are mentoring programs for youth? A systematic assessment of the evidence. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 12(2), 57–91.
FarrellJ. L.YoungD. W.TaxmanF. S. (2011). Effects of organizational factors on use of juvenile supervision practices. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 38(6), 565–583. doi:10.1177/0093854811401786
19.
FarringtonD. P.LoeberR.Stouthamer-LoeberM.van KammenW. B.SchmidtL. (1996). Self-reported delinquency and a combined delinquency seriousness scale based on boys, mothers, and teachers: Concurrent and predictive validity for African-Americans and Caucasians. Criminology, 34, 501–525.
20.
FieldsD.AbramsL. S. (2010). Gender differences in the perceived needs and barriers of youth offenders preparing for community reentry. Child & Youth Care Forum, 39, 253–269. doi:10.1007/s10566-010-9102-x
21.
FlorsheimP.ShotorbaniS.Guest-WarnickG.BarrattT. (2000). Role of the working alliance in the treatment of delinquent boys in community-based programs. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 94–107.
22.
GiordanoP. C.CernkovichS. A.LoweryA. R. (2004). A long-term follow-up of serious adolescent female offenders. In PutallazM.BiermanK. L. (Eds.), Aggression, antisocial behavior, and violence among girls: A developmental perspective (pp. 186–202). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
23.
GavazziS. M.YarcheckC. M.RhineE. E.PartridgeC. R. (2003). Building bridges between the parole officer and the families of serious juvenile offenders: A preliminary report on a family-based parole program. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47, 291–308. doi:10.1177/0306624X03047003004
24.
GreenT. C.JohnsonJ.HarringtonM.PougetE. R.RhodesA. G.TaxmanF. S.…FriedmannP. D. (2011). Parole officer–parolee relationships and HIV risk behaviors during community supervision. AIDS and Behavior. doi:10.1007/s10461-011-0081-1
25.
HaleC.HannumJ.EspelageD. (2005). Social support and physical health: The importance of belonging. Journal of American College Health, 53, 276–284.
26.
HendersonC. E.YoungD. W.FarrellJ.TaxmanF. S. (2009). Associations among state and local organizational contexts: Use of evidence-based practices in the criminal justice system. Drug and alcohol dependence, 103, S23–S32.
27.
JohnsonJ. E.FriedmannP. D.GreenT. C.HarringtonM.TaxmanF. S. (2011). Gender and treatment response in substance use treatment-mandated parolees. Journal of substance abuse treatment, 40, 313–321.
28.
Kempf-LeonardK.JohanssonP. (2007). Gender and runaways: Risk factors, delinquency, and juvenile justice experiences. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5, 308–327.
29.
KennealyP. J.SkeemJ. L.ManchakS. M.Eno LoudenJ. (2012). Firm, fair, and caring officer-offender relationships protect against supervision failure. Law and Human Behavior, 36, 496–505. doi:10.1037/h0093935
30.
KlockarsC. (1972). A theory of probation supervision. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, 63, 550–557.
31.
LittleR. J. A.RubinD. B. (1987). Statistical analysis with missing data. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
32.
MaccobyE. (1990). Gender and relationships: A developmental account. American Psychologist, 45, 513–520.
33.
MacDonaldJ.Chesney-LindM. (2001). Gender bias and juvenile justice revisited: A multiyear analysis. Crime and Delinquency, 47, 173–186. doi:10.1177/0011128701047002002
34.
MarshS.EvansW. (2009). Youth perspectives on their relationships with staff in juvenile correctional settings and perceived likelihood of success on release. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 7, 46–67.doi:10.1177/1541204008324484
35.
MaschiT.SchwalbeC.MorgenK.GibsonS.VioletteN. (2009). Exploring the influence of gender on adolescents’ service needs and service pathways. Children and Youth Services Review, 31, 257–264. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.07.018
36.
MartinezD. J.AbramsL. S. (2013). Informal social support among returning young offenders: A metasynthesis of the literature. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 2013, 57, 169–190. doi:10.1177/0306624X11428203
37.
MartinezD. J.ChristianJ. (2009). The familial relationships of former prisoners examining the link between residence and informal support mechanisms. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 38, 201–224.
38.
MatthewsB.HubbardD. (2008). The helping alliance in juvenile probation. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 45, 105–122. doi:10.1300/J076v45n01_09
39.
MillerW. R.BenefieldR. G.ToniganJ. S. (1993). Enhancing motivation for change in problem drinking: A controlled comparison of two therapist styles. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 61(3), 455.
40.
MorganM.PattonP. (2002). Gender responsive programming in the justice system—Oregon’s guidelines for effective programming for girls. Federal Probation, 66, 57–65.
OudekerkB. A.BurgersD.ReppucciN. D. (2014). Romantic partner deviance and the continuity of violence from adolescence to adulthood among offending girls. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 24, 27–39.
43.
OudekerkB. A.ErbacherM. K.ReppucciN. D. (2012). A comparison of diversity, frequency, and severity self-reported offending scores among female offending youth. Psychological Assessment, 24, 738–750.doi:10.1037/a0026791
44.
PanuccioE.ChristianJ.MartinezD. J.SullivanM. L. (2012). Social support, motivation, and the process of juvenile reentry: An exploratory analysis of desistance. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 51, 135–160. doi:10.1080/10509674.2011.618527
45.
RaykovT. (2005). Analysis of longitudinal studies with missing data using covariance structure modeling with full-information maximum likelihood. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 12, 493–505.
46.
ReeseW.CurtisW.WhitworthJ. (1988). Dispositional discretion or disparity: The juvenile probation officer's role in delinquency processing. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 24, 81–100.
47.
ReidA. (2004). Gender and sources of subjective well-being. Sex Roles, 51, 617–629. doi:10.1007/s11199-004-0714-1
48.
RosenbergF. R.SimmonsR. G. (1975). Sex differences in the self-concept in adolescence. Sex Roles, 1, 147–159.
49.
SchwalbeC.MaschiT. (2009a). Investigating probation strategies with juvenile offenders: The influence of officers’ attitudes and youth characteristics. Law and Human Behavior, 33, 357–367.
50.
SchwalbeC.MaschiT. (2009b). Confronting delinquency: Probation officers’ use of coercion and client centered tactics to foster youth compliance. Crime and Delinquency. Prepublished online, July 20, 2009. doi:10.1177/0011128709335150.
51.
SickmundM.SladkyT. J.KangW. (2012). Easy access to the Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement. Retrieved fromhttp://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/ezacjrp/
52.
SimpsonD. D. (2001). TCU Treatment Assessment Forms. Fort Worth, TX: Texas Christian University, Institute of Behavioral Research. Retrieved fromwww.ibr.tcu.edu
53.
SkeemJ.Eno LoudenJ.ManchakS.VidalS.HaddadE. (2009). Social networks and social control of probationers with co-occurring mental and substance abuse disorders. Law and Human Behavior, 33, 122–135. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10979-008-9140-1
54.
SkeemJ.LoudenJ.PolaschekD.CampJ. (2007). Assessing relationship quality in mandated community treatment: Blending care with control. Psychological Assessment, 19, 397–410. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.19.4.397
55.
SkeemJ. L.ManchakS. (2008). Back to the future: From Klockars’ model of effective supervision to evidence-based practice in probation. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 47, 220–247. doi:10.1080/10509670802134069
56.
SteinbergL.Blatt-EisengartI.CauffmanE. (2006). Patterns of competence and adjustment among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful homes: A replication in a sample of serious juvenile offenders. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 47–58.
57.
SteinbergL.ChungH.LittleM. (2004). Reentry of young offenders from the justice system: A developmental perspective. Youth and Juvenile Justice, 2, 21–38.
58.
TilleJ. E.RoseJ. C. (2007). Emotional and behavioral problems at 13-to-18-year-old incarcerated female first-time offenders and recidivists. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5, 426–435.
WoodJ. (1999). Relational communication: Continuity and change in personal relationships. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
61.
WoolardJ. (2004). Girls, aggression, and delinquency. In MorettiM.OdgersC.JacksonM. A. (Eds.), Girls and aggression: Contributing factors and intervention principles (pp. 225–237). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic.
62.
ZahnM. A.BrumbaughS.SteffensmeierD.FeldB. C.MorashM.Chesney-LindM.…KruttschnittC. (2008). Violence by teenage girls: Trends and context. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Retrieved fromwww.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/218905.pd
