This study examines the influence of race, gender, and type of legal counsel on juvenile court outcomes. Data from a sample of juvenile court referrals from two midwestern juvenile courts indicate that the effect of these factors varied by court location. The severity or leniency of the disposition outcome was determined by race, gender, type of legal counsel, and court location. This study clearly demonstrates the need for an approach that considers the interplay between legally relevant and legally irrelevant factors on juvenile justice decision making.
Aday, D., Jr. (1986). Court structure, defense attorney use, and juvenile court decisions. Sociological Quarterly, 27, 107-119.
2.
Albonetti, C. (1987). Prosecutorial discretion: The effects of uncertainty . Law & Society Review, 21, 291-313.
3.
Aldrich, J., & Nelson, F. (1984). Linear probability, logit and tobit models. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
4.
Bailey, W. (1981). Preadjudicatory detention in a large metropolitan juvenile court. Law and Human Behavior, 5, 19-43.
5.
Belknap, J. (2001). The invisible woman: Gender, crime and justice . Belmont, CA: West/Wadsworth.
6.
Bishop, D. (2005). The role of race and ethnicity in juvenile justice processing. In D. Hawkins & K. Kempf-Leonard (Eds.), Our children, their children: Confronting racial and ethnic differences in American juvenile justice (pp. 23-82). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
7.
Bishop, D., & Frazier, C. (1987). The influence of race in juvenile justice processing . Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 25, 242-263.
8.
Bishop, D., & Frazier, C. (1992). Gender bias in the juvenile justice system: Implications of the JJDP act. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 82, 1162-1186.
9.
Bishop, D., & Frazier, C. (1996). Race effects in juvenile justice decision-making: Findings of a statewide analysis. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 86, 392-414.
10.
Black, D., & Reiss, A., Jr. (1970). Police control of juveniles . American Sociological Review, 35, 63-77.
11.
Bortner, M., & Reed, W. (1985). The pre-eminence of process: An example of refocused justice research. Social Science Quarterly, 66, 413-425.
12.
Bortner, M., Sunderland, M., & Winn, R. (1985). Race and the impact of juvenile deinstitutionalization . Crime & Delinquency, 31, 35-46.
13.
Bray, T., Sample, L., & Kempf-Leonard, K. (2005). Justice by geography: Racial disparity and juvenile courts. In D. Hawkins & K. Kempf-Leonard, (Eds.), Our children, their children: Confronting racial and ethnic differences in American juvenile justice (pp. 270-299). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
14.
Bridges, G., & Steen, S. (1998). Racial disparities in official assessments of juvenile offenders: Attributional stereotypes as mediating mechanisms. American Sociological Review, 63, 554-570.
15.
Burruss, G., & Kempf-Leonard, K. (2002). The questionable advantage of defense counsel in juvenile court. Justice Quarterly, 19, 37-67.
16.
Carrington, P., & Moyer, S. (1990). The effect of defense counsel and outcome in juvenile court. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 32, 621-637.
17.
Carter, T. (1979). Juvenile court dispositions: A comparison of status and non-status offenders. Criminology, 17, 341-359.
18.
Chesney-Lind, M. (1973). Judicial enforcement of the female sex role: The family court and the female delinquent. Issues in Criminology , 82, 51-69.
19.
Chesney-Lind, M. (1977). Judicial paternalism and the female status offender . Crime & Delinquency, 23, 121-130.
20.
Chesney-Lind, M., & Shelden, R. (2004). Girls, delinquency, and juvenile justice. Belmont, CA: West/Wadsworth.
21.
Clarke, S., & Koch, G. (1980). Juvenile court: Therapy or crime control, and do lawyers make a difference?Law & Society Review, 14, 263-308.
22.
Cohen, L., & Klugel, J. (1978). Determinants of juvenile court dispositions: Ascriptive and achieved factors in two metropolitan courts. American Sociological Review, 43, 162-176.
23.
Cohen, L., & Klugel, J. (1979a). The detention decision: A study of the impact of social characteristics and legal factors in two metropolitan juvenile courts . Social Forces, 58, 146-161.
24.
Cohen, L., & Klugel, J. (1979b). Selecting delinquents for adjudication: An analysis of intake screening decisions in two metropolitan courts. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 16, 143-163.
25.
Conley, D. (1994). Adding color to a black and white picture: Using qualitative data to explain racial disproportionality in the juvenile justice system. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 31, 135-148.
26.
Dannefer, D., & Schutt, R. (1982). Race and juvenile justice processing in court and police agencies. American Journal of Sociology, 87, 1113-1132.
27.
Datesman, S., & Scarpitti, F. (1977). Unequal protection for males and females in the juvenile courts. In T. Ferdinand (Ed.), Juvenile delinquency: Little brother grows up (pp. 59-78). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
28.
DeJong, C., & Jackson, K. (1998). Putting race into context: Race, juvenile justice processing and urbanization. Justice Quarterly, 15, 487-504.
29.
Dixon, J. (1995). The organizational context of criminal sentencing . American Journal of Sociology, 100, 1157-1198.
30.
Dootjes, I., Erickson, P., & Fox, R. (1972). Defense counsel in juvenile court: A variety of roles. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 14, 132-149.
31.
Duffee, D., & Siegel, L. (1971). The organization man: Legal counsel in the juvenile court. Criminal Law Bulletin, 7, 544-553.
32.
Erickson, P. (1975). Legalistic and traditional role expectations for defense counsel in juvenile court. Canadian Journal of Criminology , 17, 78-93.
33.
Fagan, J., Slaughter, E., & Hartstone, E. (1987). Blind justice? The impact of race on the juvenile justice process. Crime & Delinquency, 33, 224-258.
34.
Farrington, D., & Morris, A. (1983). Sex, sentencing, and reconviction. British Journal of Criminology, 23, 229-248.
35.
Feld, B. (1988). In re Gault: A cross-state comparison of the right to counsel in juvenile court. Crime & Delinquency, 34, 393-424.
36.
Feld, B. (1991). Justice by geography: Urban, suburban and rural variations in juvenile justice administration. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 82, 156-210.
37.
Feld, B. (1993a). Justice for children: The right to counsel and the juvenile courts. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press.
38.
Feld, B. (1993b). Criminalizing the American juvenile court. In M. Tonry (Ed.), Crime and justice: A review of research (Vol. 17, pp. 197-280). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
39.
Feld, B. (1995). The social context of juvenile justice administration: Racial disparities in an urban juvenile court. In K. Kempf-Leonard, C. Pope, & W. Feyerherm (Eds.), Minorities in juvenile justice (pp. 66-97). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
40.
Feld, B. (1999). Bad kids: Race and the transformation of the juvenile court. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
41.
Fenwick, C. (1982). Juvenile court intake decision-making: The importance of family affiliation. Journal of Criminal Justice, 10, 443-453.
42.
Ferster, E., & Courtless, T. (1972). Pre-dispositional data, role of counsel, and decisions in a juvenile court. Law & Society Review, 7, 195-222.
43.
Ferster, E., Courtless, T., & Snethen, E. (1971). The juvenile justice system: In search of the role of counsel. Fordham Law Review, 39, 375-412.
44.
Frazier, C., & Bishop, D. (1985). The pretrial detention of juveniles and its impact on case dispositions. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology , 76, 1132-1152.
45.
Frazier, C., & Bishop, D. (1995). Reflections on race effects in juvenile justice . In K. Kempf-Leonard, C. Pope, & W. Feyerherm (Eds.), Minorities in juvenile justice (pp. 16-46). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
46.
Frazier, C., Bishop, D., & Henretta, J.C. (1992). The social context of race differentials in juvenile justice dispositions. Sociological Quarterly, 33, 447-458.
47.
Frazier, C., & Cochran, J. (1987). Detention of juveniles: Its effect on subsequent juvenile court processing decisions. Youth and Society, 17, 286-305.
48.
Guevara, L., Spohn, C., & Herz, D. (2004). Race, legal representation, and juvenile justice: Issues and concerns. Crime & Delinquency, 50, 344-371.
49.
Hawkins, D., & Jones, H. (1989). Black adolescents and the criminal justice system . In R. Jones (Ed.), Black adolescents (pp. 403-425). Berkeley, CA: Lobbard Henry.
50.
Henretta, J., Frazier, C., & Bishop, D. (1986). The effect of prior case outcomes on juvenile justice decision-making. Social Forces, 65, 554-562.
51.
In re Gault, 387 U.S. 1 (1967).
52.
Johnson, D., & Scheuble, L. (1991). Gender bias in the disposition of juvenile court referrals: The effects of time and location. Criminology, 29, 677-699.
53.
Johnson, J., & Secret, P. (1990). Race and juvenile court decision-making revisited . Criminal Justice Policy Review, 4, 159-187.
54.
Kempf-Leonard, K., Decker, S., & Bing, R. (1990). An analysis of apparent disparities in the handling of Black youth within Missouri's juvenile justice systems. Jefferson City: Missouri Department of Public Safety .
55.
Kempf-Leonard, K., & Sontheimer, L. (1995). The role of race in juvenile justice processing in Pennsylvania. In K. Kempf-Leonard, C. Pope, & W. Feyerherm (Eds.), Minorities in juvenile justice (pp. 98-127). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
56.
Langley, M. (1972). The juvenile court: The making of a delinquent . Law & Society Review, 7, 273-298.
57.
Lefstein, N., Stapleton, V., & Teitelbaum, L. (1969). In search of juvenile justice: Gault and its implementation. Law & Society Review, 3, 491-563.
58.
Leiber, M. (1994). A comparison of juvenile court outcomes for Native Americans, African Americans, and Whites. Justice Quarterly , 11, 257-278.
59.
Liao, T. (1994). Interpreting probability models: Logit, probit and other generalized linear models. Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage.
60.
Lockhart, L., Kurtz, P., Sutphen, R., & Gauger, K. (1991). Georgia's juvenile justice system: A retrospective investigation of racial disparity. Athens: School of Social Work, University of Georgia.
61.
Long, J. (1997). Regression models for categorical and limited dependent variables. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
62.
Mann, C. (1979). The differential treatment between runaway boys and girls in juvenile court. Juvenile and Family Court Journal , 30, 37-48.
63.
Marshall, I., & Thomas, C. (1983). Discretionary decision-making and the juvenile court. Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 34(3), 47-59.
64.
McCarthy, B., & Smith, B. (1986). The conceptualization of discrimination in the juvenile justice process: The impact of administrative factors and screening decisions on juvenile court dispositions. Criminology, 24, 41-64.
65.
McCord, J., Spatz-Widon, C., & Crowell, C. (2002). Juvenile crime, juvenile justice. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
66.
McGarrell, E. (1993). Trends in racial disproportionality in juvenile court processing: 1985-1989. Crime & Delinquency, 39, 29-48.
67.
Melton, G. (1989). Taking Gault seriously: Toward a new juvenile court. Nebraska Law Review, 68, 146-181.
Morris, A. (1987). Women, crime, and criminal justice. Oxford, UK : Basil Blackwell.
70.
Neigher, A. (1967). The Gault decision: Due process and the juvenile courts. Federal Probation, 31, 8-18.
71.
Nesburg, A. (1971). Juvenile due process in the lower courts. Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, 62, 335-349.
72.
Odem, M. (1995). Delinquent daughters: Protecting and policing adolescent female sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
73.
Phillips, C., & Dinitz, S. (1982). Labeling and juvenile court dispositions: Official responses to a cohort of violent juveniles. Sociological Quarterly , 23, 267-278.
74.
Piliavin, I., & Briar, S. (1964). Police encounters with juveniles. American Sociological Review, 51, 91-119.
75.
Poole, E., & Regoli, R. (1980). An analysis of juvenile court dispositions. Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 31, 23-32.
76.
Pope, C., & Feyerherm, W. (1990). Minority status and juvenile justice processing: An assessment of the research literature (Parts I and II). Criminal Justice Abstracts, 327-335, 527-542.
77.
Reasons, C. (1970). Gault: Procedural change and substantive effect . Crime & Delinquency, 16, 163-171.
78.
Sampson, R., & Laub, J. (1993). Structural variations in juvenile court processing: Inequality, the underclass, and social control. Law & Society Review, 27, 285-311.
79.
Sanborn, J. (1996). Factors perceived to affect delinquent dispositions in juvenile court: Putting the sentencing decision into context. Crime & Delinquency, 42, 99-113.
80.
Schlossman, S., & Wallach, S. (1978). The crime of precocious sexuality: Female juvenile delinquency in the progressive era. Harvard Educational Review , 48, 65-94.
81.
Shelden, R., & Horvath, J. (1986, February). Processing offenders in a juvenile court: A comparison of male and female offenders. Presented at the annual meeting of the Western Society of Criminology, Newport Beach, CA.
82.
Stapleton, V., Aday, P., & Ito, J. (1982). An empirical typology of American metropolitan juvenile courts. American Journal of Sociology, 88, 549-564.
83.
Stapleton, V., & Teitelbaum, L. (1972). In defense of youth: A study of the role of counsel in American juvenile courts. New York: Russell Sage.
84.
Steffensmeier, D., Ulmer, J., & Kramer, J. (1998). The interaction of race, gender, and age in criminal sentencing: The punishment cost of being young, Black, and male. Criminology, 36, 763-798.
85.
Teilmann, K., & Landry, P. (1981). Gender bias in juvenile justice. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 18, 47-80.
86.
Thomas, C., & Sieverdes, C. (1975). Juvenile court intake: An analysis of discretionary decision-making. Criminology, 12, 413-432.
87.
Thornberry, T. (1973). Race, socioeconomic status and sentencing in the juvenile justice system. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology , 64, 90-98.
88.
Thornberry, T., & Christensen, R. (1984). Juvenile justice decision-making as a longitudinal process. Social Forces, 63, 433-444.
89.
Tracy, P. (2005). Race, ethnicity, and juvenile justice: Is there bias in post-arrest decision making? In D. Hawkins & K. Kempf-Leonard (Eds.), Our children, their children: Confronting racial and ethnic differences in American juvenile justice (pp. 300-347). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
90.
Ulmer, J. (1997). Social worlds of sentencing. Albany: State University of New York Press.
91.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1990). Census of population and housing. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
92.
U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. (1999). Juvenile offenders and victims: 1999 national report. Pittsburgh, PA: National Center for Juvenile Justice.
93.
Visher, C. (1983). Gender, police arrest decision, and notions of chivalry. Criminology, 21, 5-8.
94.
Walker, S., Spohn, C., & DeLone, M. (2004). The color of justice: Race, ethnicity, and crime in America. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
95.
Winslade, W. (1974). The juvenile court: From idealism to hypocrisy . Social Theory and Practice, 3, 181-199.
96.
Wordes, M., & Bynum, T. (1995). Policing juveniles: Is there bias against youths of color? In K. Kempf-Leonard, C. Pope, & W. Feyerherm (Eds.), Minorities in juvenile justice (pp. 47-65). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
97.
Wordes, M., Bynum, T., & Corley, C. (1994). Locking up youth: The impact of race on detention decisions. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 31, 149-165.
