Although there is a growing consensus that including natural supports in the employment process is an important goal, there is considerable debate about the definition and appropriate role of these supports. This manuscript clarifies and extends current definitions of natural supports and proposes a working model to guide future research and practice. Primary emphasis is placed on natural supports as a desired outcome of successful employment rather than a distinct model for support and as a contributing factor to higher level outcomes such as quality of life. From both a researcher's and a practitioner's perspective there is a need to shift emphasis from competing models of employment support to developing a better understanding of the relationship between specific job coach interventions and the desired outcome of effective natural support.
BarberD.HuppS. (1993). A comparison of friendship patterns of individuals with developmental disabilities. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 28, 13–22.
2.
BarlowD. H.HersenM. (1984). Single case experimental designs: Strategies for studying behavior change. New York: Pergamon Press.
3.
BaumgartD.AskvigB. (1992). Job-related social interventions: Suggestions from managers and employees. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 27, 345–353.
4.
BullisM.FredericksH. D. B.LehmanC.ParisK.CorbittJ.JohnsonB. (1994). Description and evaluation of the job designs project for adolescents with emotional or behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 19, 254–268.
5.
ButterworthJ.HagnerD.HeikkinenB.FarisS.DeMelloS.McDonoughK. (1993). Whole life planning: A guide for organizers and facilitators. Boston: Institute for Community Inclusion, Children's Hospital.
6.
ButterworthJ.StrauchJ. (1994). The relationship between social competence and success in the competitive work place for persons with mental retardation. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 29, 118–133.
7.
CallahanM. (1992). Job site training and natural supports. In NisbetJ. (Es.), Natural supports at home, school, and in the workplace for people with severe disabilities. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
8.
Chadsey-RuschJ.GonzalezP.TinesJ.JohnsonJ. R. (1989). Social ecology in the workplace: Contextual variables affecting social interactions of employees with and without mental retardation. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 94, 141–151.
9.
CurlR.ChisholmL. A. (1991). Unlocking co-worker potential in competitive employment: Keys to a cooperative approach. Unpublished manuscript. Utah State University.
10.
FabianE. S.EdelmanA.LeedyM. (1993). Linking workers with severe disabilities to social supports in the workplace: Strategies for addressing the barriers. Journal of Rehabilitation, 58, 29–34.
11.
FabianE. S.LueckingR. G. (1991). Doing it the company way: Using internal company supports in the workplace. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 22(2), 32–35.
12.
HagnerD. (1992). The social interactions and social supports of supported employees. In NisbetJ. (Ed.), Natural supports in school, at work, and in the community for people with severe disabilities. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
13.
HagnerD.ButterworthJ.KeithG. (1995). Strategies and barriers in facilitating natural supports for employment of adults with severe disabilities. Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 20, 110–120.
14.
HagnerD.CottonP.GoodallS.NisbetJ. (1992). The perspectives of supportive coworkers: Nothing special. In NisbetJ. (Ed.), Natural supports at home, work, and in the community for people with severe disabilities. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
15.
HagnerD.DiLeoD. (1993). Working together: Workplace culture, supported employment, and persons with disabilities. Brookline, MA: Brookline Books.
16.
HagnerD.RoganP.MurphyS. (1992). Facilitating natural supports in the workplace: Strategies for support consultants. Journal of Rehabilitation, 58(1), 29–34.
17.
HalpernA. S. (1985). Transition: A look at the foundations. Exceptional Children, 51, 479–486.
18.
HouseJ. S. (1981). Work stress and social support. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
19.
HouseJ. S.LandisK. R.UmbersonD. (1988). Social relationships and health. Science, 540–545.
20.
KiernanW. E.SchalockR. L.ButterworthJ.SailorW. (1993). Enhancing the use of natural supports for people with severe disabilities. Boston: Training and Research Institute for People with Disabilities (UAP), Children's Hospital.
21.
KnoxM.ParmenterT. R. (1993). Social networks and support mechanisms for people with mild intellectual disability in competitive employment. International Journal of Rehabilitation, 16, 1–12.
22.
KregelJ. (1994, Fall). Natural supports and the job coach: An unnecessary dichotomy. Rehabilitation Research and Training Center at Virginia Commonwealth University Newletter, p. 1.
23.
LeeM.StoreyK. (1995). The effect of coworker versus job coach instruction on integration in supported employment settings. Unpublished manuscript. Chapman University, Concord, CA.
24.
LichtensteinS.MichaelidesN. (1993). Transition from school to young adulthood: Four case studies of young adults labeled mentally retarded. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 16(2), 183–195.
25.
LinN.DuminM. (1986). Access to occupations through social ties. Social Networks, 8, 365–385.
26.
LuckassonR.CoulterD.PollowayE.ReissS.SchalockR.SnellM.SpitalnikD.StarkJ. (1992). Mental retardation: Definition, classification, and systems of supports. Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Retardation.
27.
MankD.BuckleyJ.WhaleyP.CioffiA.AlbinJ.SlovicR. (1993). Summary of the national forum on natural supports. Eugene, OR: The Employment Network, University of Oregon.
28.
MankD.OorthuysJ.RhodesL.SandowD.WeyerT. (1992). Accommodating workers with mental disabilities. Training and Development Jourmal, 46(1), 49–52.
29.
McGaugheyM. J.KiernanW. E.McNallyL. C.GilmoreD. S.KeithG. R. (1994). Beyond the workshop: National perspectives on integrated employment. Boston: Institute for Community Inclusion (UAP).
30.
MeyerL.EvansI. (1993). Science and practice in behavioral intervention: Meaningful outcomes, research validity, and usable knowledge. Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 18, 224–234.
31.
MoonM. S.IngeK. J.WehmanP.BrookeV.BarcusJ. M. (1990). Helping persons with severe mental retardation get and keep employment. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
32.
MurphyS.RoganP. (1994). Developing natural supports in the workplace: A manual for practioners. Saint Augustine, FL: Training Resource Network.
33.
NisbetJ. (Ed.). (1992). Natural supports at home, work, and in the community for people with severe disabilities. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
34.
NisbetJ.CallahanM. (1987). Achieving success in integrated workplaces: Critical elements in assisting persons with severe disabilities. In TaylorS. J.BiklenD.KnollJ. (Eds.), Community integration for people with severe disabilities (pp. 184–201). New York: Teachers College Press.
35.
NisbetJ.HagnerD. (1988). Natural supports in the workplace: A reexamination of supported employment. Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 13, 260–267.
36.
O'BrienJ.LovettH. (1993). Finding a way toward everyday lives: The contribution of person centered planning. Harrisburg, PA: Pennsylvania Office of Mental Retardation.
37.
O'ConnorG. (1983). Social support of mentally retarded persons. Mental Retardation, 21, 187–196.
ParkH.SimonM.TappeP.WozniakT.JohnsonB.Gaylord-RossR. (1991). Effects of a co-worker advocacy program and social skills training on the social interaction of employees with mild disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 1(4), 73–90.
40.
PowellT. H.PancsofarE. L.SteereD. E.ButterworthJ.ItzkowitzJ.RainforthB. (1991). Supported Employment: Developing integrated employment opportunities for persons with disabilities. White Plains, NY: Longman Publishing.
41.
RhodesL.SandowD.MankD.BuckleyJ.AlbinJ. (1991). Expanding the role of employers in supported employment. Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 16(4), 213–217.
42.
RoganP.HagnerD.MurphyS. (1993). Natural supports: Reconceptualizing job coach roles. Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 18, 275–281.
43.
RomerD.HellerT. (1983). Social adaptation of mentally retarded adults in community settings: A socio-ecological approach. Applied Research in Mental Retardation, 4, 303–314.
44.
SillikerS. A. (1993). The role of social contacts in the successful job search. Journal of Employment Counseling, 30, 25–34.
45.
StoreyK.HornerR. (1991). Social interactions in three supported employment options: A comparative analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 349–360.
46.
TaliaferroW.SandowD.RhodesL. (1993). Using company support to employ people with disabilities: One company's story. The Oregon Conference Monograph, 5, 126–133.
47.
TurnerSyzmanskiE. (1990). Work adjustment of people with congenital disabilities: A longitudinal perspective from birth to adulthood. Journal of Rehabilitation, 56(3), 19–24.
48.
Udvari-SolnerA. (1991). Variables associated with the integration of individuals with intellectual disabilities in supported employment settings (Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin—Madison, 1990). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51, 4102.
49.
WehmanP.SaleP.ParentW. (1992). Supported employment: Strategies for integration of workers with disabilities. Boston: Andover Medical Publishers.
50.
WestM. (1992). Job retention: Toward vocational competence, self management, and natural supports. In WehmanP.SaleP.ParentW. (Eds.), Supported employment: Strategies for integration of workers with disabilities. Boston: Andover Medical Publishers.
51.
YanX.MankD.SandowD. (1993). Co-workers perceptions of an employee with severe disabilities: An analysis of interactions in a work setting. Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 18, 282–291.
