This article presents a critical analysis of the principle of the least restrictive environment (LRE). The article begins with a review of the origins of LRE in professional writings and law and moves next to a discussion of how LRE has been operationalized in terms of a continuum of residential, educational, and vocational services. Building on previous critiques of the continuum concept, the author presents seven conceptual and philosophical flaws or pitfalls in the LRE principle itself, especially when it is applied to people with severe disabilities. The author then argues that an uncritical acceptance of LRE may lead to the establishment of a “new” community-based continuum and takes the position that many leading writings in the field can be interpreted to legitimate this new continuum. The conclusion of the article supports an unconditional commitment to integration and briefly contrasts integration with LRE as a guiding principle for the design of services and support for people with developmental disabilities and concludes with a note on the importance of viewing concepts in historical context.
A complete continuum of services. (1973, September). Mental Retardation News, pp. 3–8.
2.
AbesonA.BolickN.HaasJ. (1976). Due process of law: Background and intent. In WeintraubF. J.AbesonA.BallardJ.LaVorM. L. (Eds.), Public policy and the education of exceptional children (pp. 22–32). Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.
3.
AinesJ. P.KnappC. W. (1986). Institutions as community resources for vocational habilitation. In CrisseyM. S.RosenM. (Eds.), Institutions for the mentally retarded (pp. 79–97). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
4.
AntonakR. F.MulickJ. A. (Eds.). (1987). Transitions in mental retardation. Volume 3: The community imperative revisited.Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
5.
BachrachL. L. (1985). Deinstitutionalization: The meaning of the least restrictive environment. In BruininksR. H.LakinK. C. (Eds.), Living and learning in the least restrictive environment (pp. 23–36). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
6.
BellamyG. T.RhodesL. E.AlbinJ. M. (1986). Supported employment. In KiernanW. E.StarkJ. A. (Eds.), Pathways to employment for adults with developmental disabilities (pp. 129–138). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
7.
BellamyG. T.RhodesL. E.BourbeauP. E.MankD. M. (1986). Mental retardation services in sheltered workshops and day activity programs: Consumer benefits and policy alternatives. In RuschF. (Ed.), Competitive employment issues and strategies (pp. 257–272). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
8.
BellamyG. T.RhodesL. E.WilcoxB.AlbinJ. M.MankD. M.BolesS. M.HornerR. H.CollinsM.TurnerJ. (1984). Quality and equality in employment services for adults with severe disabilities. The Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 9(4), 270–277.
9.
BiklenD. (1982). The least restrictive environment: Its application to education. In MeltonG. (Ed.), Child and youth services (pp. 121–144). New York: Haworth.
10.
BiklenD. (in press). The myth of clinical judgment. Journal of Social Issues.
11.
BiklenD.BogdanR.FergusonD. L.SearlS. J.TaylorS. J. (1985). Achieving the complete school: Strategies for effective mainstreaming.New York: Teachers College Press.
12.
BlattB.BogdanR.BiklenD.TaylorS. (1977). From institution to community: A conversion model. In SontagE. (Ed.), Educational programming for the severely and profoundly handicapped (pp. 40–52). Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.
13.
BlattB.KaplanF. (1966). Christmas in purgatory.Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
14.
BlattB.OzolinsA.McNallyJ. (1979). The family papers.New York: Longman.
15.
Board of Education of the Henrick Hudson Central School District et al. v. Amy Rowley, 102 S. Ct. 3034 (1982).
16.
BogdanR.TaylorS. J. (1987). Conclusion: The next wave. In TaylorS. J.BiklenD.KnollJ. (Eds.), Community integration for people with severe disabilities (pp. 209–213). New York: Teachers College Press.
17.
BraddockD.HempR.FujiuraG. (1986). Public expenditures for mental retardation and developmental disabilities in the United States: State profiles (2nd ed.) Chicago: University of Illinois.
18.
BronstonW. (1980). Matters of design. In ApolloniT.CappuccilliJ.CookeT. P. (Eds.), Towards excellence: Achievements in residential services for persons with disabilities (pp. 1–17). Baltimore: University Park Press.
19.
BrownL.FordA.NisbetJ.SweetM.DonnellanA.GruenewaldL. (1983). Opportunities available when severely handicapped students attend chronological age appropriate regular schools. The Journal of The Association for the Severely Handicapped, 8(1), 16–24.
20.
BrownL.WilcoxB.SontagE.VincentB.DoddN.GruenewaldL. (1979). Towards the realization of the least restrictive educational environment for severely handicapped students. The Journal of The Association for the Severely Handicapped, 2(4), 195–201.
21.
BruininksR. H.LakinK. C. (Eds.). (1985). Living and learning in the least restrictive environment.Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
22.
BurgdorfR. L. (Ed.). (1980). The legal rights of handicapped persons: Cases, materials, and text.Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
23.
CastellaniP. J. (1987). The political economy of developmental disabilities.Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
24.
Center on Human Policy. (1979). The community imperative.Syracuse, NY: Author.
25.
Center on Human Policy. (1986). On the issue of “small residential units” on the grounds of New York State institutions.Syracuse, NY: Author.
26.
CrisseyM. S.RosenM. (Eds.). (1986). Institutions for the mentally retarded.Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
27.
DenoE. (1970). Special education as developmental capital. Exceptional Children, 37, 229–237.
28.
Developmentally Disabled Assistance and Bill of Rights Act of1975, 42 U.S.C. Sec. 6010.
29.
DurandJ.NeufeldtA. H. (1980). Comprehensive vocational services. In FlynnR. J.NitschK. E. (Eds.), Normalization, social integration, and community services (pp. 283–298). Baltimore: University Park Press.
30.
Education for All Handicapped Children Act of1975, 20 U.S.C. 1401.
31.
Federal Register. (1977). Education of Handicapped Children: Implementation of Part B of the Education of the Handicapped Act. Vol. 42, No. 163—Tuesday, August 23, Part II, 42474–42518.
32.
GallowayC. (1980). The “continuum” and the need for caution. Unpublished manuscript.
33.
GilhoolT. (1978). PARC, Lau, Rodriguez, and individualized education. Cross Reference: A Journal of Public Policy and Multicultural Education, 1(1), 23.
34.
GilhoolT.StutmanE. (1978). Integration of severely handicapped students: Toward criteria for implementing and enforcing the integration imperative of P.L. 94–142 and Section 504. In Bureau of Education for the Handicapped (Ed.), Criteria for the evaluation of the least restrictive environment provision.Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
35.
HalpernA. S.CloseD. W.NelsonD. J. (1986). On my own.Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
36.
HaringN. G.HansenC. L. (1981). Perspectives in com-munitization. In HansenC. L. (Ed.), Severely handicapped persons in the community (pp. 1–27). Seattle, WA: Program Development Assistance System.
37.
HitzingW. (1980). ENCOR and beyond. In ApolloniT.CappuccilliJ.CookeT. P. (Eds.), Towards excellence-Achievements in residential services for persons with disabilities (pp. 71–93). Baltimore: University Park Press.
38.
HitzingW. (1987). Community living alternatives for persons with autism and severe behavior problems. In CohenD. J.DonnellanA. (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (pp. 396–410). New York: John Wiley.
39.
KiernanW. E.StarkJ. A. (Eds.). (1986). Pathways to employment for adults with developmental disabilities.Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
40.
LakinK. C.HillB. K.BruininksR. H.WhiteC. C. (1986). Residential options and future implications. In KiernanW. E.StarkJ. A. (Eds.), Pathways to employment for adults with developmental disabilities (pp. 207–228). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
41.
Landesman-DwyerS. (1981). Living in the community. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 86(3), 223–234.
42.
MankD. M.RhodesL. E.AlbinJ. M. (1986). Four supported employment alternatives. In KiernanW. E.StarkJ. A. (Eds.), Pathways to employment for adults with developmental disabilities (pp. 139–154). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
43.
McCarthyP.EversonJ.MoonS.BarcusM. (Eds.). (1985). School-to-work transition for youth with severe disabilities.Richmond: Virginia Commonwealth University.
44.
MeyenE. L. (Ed.). (1982). Exceptional children in today's schools.Denver, CO: Love.
45.
Mills v. Board of Education, 348 F. Supp. 866 (D.D.C.) (1982).
46.
New York State Association for Retarded Children v. Carey, 446 F. Supp. 479 (E.D. N.Y.) (1978).
47.
NisbetJ.HagnerD. (1987). Review of competitive employment: Issues and strategies. The Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 12(1), 76–79.
48.
O'BryanA. (1985). The STP benchwork model. In McCarthyP.EversonJ.MoonS.BarcusM. (Eds.), School-to-work transition for youth with severe disabilities (pp. 183–194). Richmond: Virginia Commonwealth University.
49.
PayneJ. S.PattonJ. R. (1981). Mental retardation.Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
50.
PeckC. A.SemmelM. I. (1982). Identifying the least restrictive environment (LRE) for children with severe handicaps: Toward an empirical analysis. The Journal of The Association for the Severely Handicapped, 7(1), 56–63.
51.
Pennhurst State School and Hospital v. Halderman, 451 U.S. 1 (1981).
52.
Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children (PARC) v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 334 F. Supp. 1257 (E.D. Pa.); 343 F. Supp. 279 (E.D. Pa.) (1971, 1972).
53.
ReynoldsM. (1962). A framework for considering some issues in special education. Exceptional Children, 28, 367–370.
54.
RhodesL. E.ValentaL. (1985). Enclaves in industry. In McCarthyP.EversonJ.MoonS.BarcusM. (Eds.), School-to-work transition for youth with severe disabilities (pp. 127–150). Richmond: Virginia Commonwealth University.
55.
RothmanD. J.RothmanS. M. (1984). The Willowbrook wars.New York: Harper & Row.
56.
RuschF. R. (Ed.). (1986). Competitive employment issues and strategies.Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
57.
SalisburyC.GriggsP. A. (1983). Developing respite care services for families of handicapped persons. The Journal of The Association for the Severely Handicapped, 8(1), 50–57.
58.
SarasonS. B.DorisJ. (1979). Educational handicap, public policy and social history.New York: Free Press.
59.
SchalockR. L. (1983). Services for developmentally disabled adults.Baltimore: University Park Press.
60.
State of New York Office of Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities. (1987). Strengthening the continuum 1987–1990.Albany, NY: Author.
61.
TaylorS. J. (1982). From segregation to integration: Strategies for integrating severely handicapped students in normal school and community settings. The Journal of The Association for the Severely Handicapped, 8(3), 42–49.
62.
TaylorS. J.BiklenD.KnollJ. (Eds.). (1987). Community integration for people with severe disabilities.New York: Teachers College Press.
63.
TaylorS. J.RacinoJ.KnollJ.LutfiyyaZ. (1987). The nonrestrictive environment: Community integration for people with the most severe disabilities.Syracuse, NY: Human Policy Press.
64.
The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps. (1986). Resolution on the redefinition of the continuum of services.Seattle, WA: Author.
65.
The Association for the Severely Handicapped. (1981). Resolution on intrusive interventions.Seattle, WA: Author.
66.
TurnbullR.EllisJ. W.BoggsE. M.BrookesP. O.BiklenD. P. (Eds.). (1981). Least restrictive alternatives: Principles and practices.Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Deficiency.
67.
TurnbullR. H.TurnbullA. P. (1978). Free appropriate public education: Law and implementation.Denver, CO: Love.
68.
WalshK. K.McCallionP. (1987). The role of the small institution in the community services continuum. In AntonakR. F.MulickJ. A. (Eds.), Transitions in mental retardation. Volume 3: The community imperative revisited (pp. 216–236). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
69.
WehmanP.HillJ. W. (1982). Preparing severely handicapped youth for less restrictive environments. The Journal of The Association for the Severely Handicapped, 7(1), 33–39.
70.
WehmanP.KregelJ. (1985). A supported work approach to competitive employment of individuals with moderate and severe handicaps. The Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 10(1), 3–11.
71.
WehmanP. H.KregelJ.BarcusJ. M.SchalockR. L. (1986). Vocational transition for students with developmental disabilities. In KiernanW. E.StarkJ. A. (Eds.), Pathways to employment for adults with developmental disabilities (pp. 113–128). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
72.
WeintraubF. J.AbesonA.BallardJ.LaVorM. L. (Eds.). (1976). Public policy and the education of exceptional children.Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.
73.
WilcoxB. (1987). Why a new curriculum? In WilcoxB.BellamyG. T. (Eds.), A comprehensive guide to the activities catalog (pp. 1–10). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
74.
IrelandWyatt v., Civ. A. No. 3195-N (M.D. Ala., N.D.), Memorandum Opinion, October 25 (1979).
ZettelJ. J.BallardJ. (1982). The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1985 (P.L. 94–142): Its history, origins, and concepts. In BallardJ.RamirezB. A.WeintraubF. J. (Eds.), Special education in America: Its legal and governmental foundations (pp. 11–22). Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.
