Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2006-6
Including High School Students with Severe Disabilities in General Education Classes: Perspectives of General and Special Educators,Paraprofessionals,and Administrators
Increasing the participation of youth with severe disabilities in general education has remained a consistent and prominent focus of legislative, policy, and research initiatives. We examined the perceptions of high school staff regarding the goals, barriers, benefits, outcomes, and supports associated with including adolescents with severe disabilities in general education classes. We found that general and special educators, paraprofessionals, and administrators both converged and diverged in their evaluations of different aspects of general education participation. Despite broad agreement regarding the benefits of and instructional priorities in general education classrooms, stakeholders differed significantly in their perceptions of barriers associated with including students with disabilities in general education classes at their high schools.
AgranM.AlperS. (2000). Curriculum and instruction in general education: Implications for service delivery and teacher preparation. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 25167–174.
2.
AgranM.AlperS.WehmeyerM. (2002). Access to the general curriculum for students with significant disabilities: What it means to teachers. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 37123–133.
AvramidisE.NorwichB. (2002). Teachers' attitudes towards integration/inclusion: A review of the literature. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 17129–147.
5.
BrozovicS. A.StaffordA. M.AlbertoP. A.TaberT. A. (2000). Variables considered by teachers of students with moderate and severe disabilities when making placement decisions. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 12131–144.
6.
BuellM. J.HallamR.Gamel-McCormickM. (1999). A survey of general and special education teachers' perceptions and inservice needs concerning inclusion. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 46143–156.
7.
CarterE. W.CushingL. S.ClarkN. M.KennedyC. H. (2005). Effects of peer support interventions on students' access to the general curriculum and social interactions. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 3015–25.
8.
CarterE. W.HughesC. (2005). Increasing social interaction among adolescents with intellectual disabilities and their general education peers: Effective interventions. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 30179–193.
9.
CarterE. W.HughesC.GuthC.CopelandS. R. (2005). Factors influencing social interaction among high school students with intellectual disabilities and their general education peers. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 110366–377.
10.
ClarkN. M.CushingL. S.KennedyC. H. (2004). An intensive onsite technical assistance model to promote inclusive educational practices for students with disabilities in middle school and high school. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 29253–262.
11.
CushingL. S.ClarkN. M.CarterE. W.KennedyC. H. (2005). Accessing the general education curriculum for students with significant cognitive disabilities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 38(2), 6–13.
12.
CookB. G. (2001). A comparison of teachers' attitudes toward their included students with mild and severe disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 34203–213.
13.
CookB. G. (2004). Inclusive teachers' attitudes toward their students with disabilities: A replication and extension. Elementary School Journal, 104307–320.
14.
CookB. G.SemmelM. I.GerberM. M. (1999). Attitudes of principals and special education teachers toward inclusion: Critical differences of opinion. Remedial and Special Education, 20199–207, 256.
15.
CopelandS. R.HughesC.CarterE. W.GuthC.PresleyJ.WilliamsC. R. (2004). Increasing access to general education: Perspectives of participants in a high school peer support program. Remedial and Special Education, 26342–352.
16.
CopelandS. R.McCallJ.WilliamsC. R.GuthC.CarterE. W.PresleyJ. A. (2002). “The Peer Buddy Program is a win-win situation”: Teachers' perspectives of a high school peer support program. Teaching Exceptional Children, 35(1), 16–21.
17.
DowningJ. E.EichingerJ.WilliamsL. J. (1997). Inclusive education for students with severe disabilities: Comparative views of principals and educators at different levels of implementation. Remedial and Special Education, 18133–142.
18.
DowningJ. E.RyndakD. L.ClarkD. (2000). Paraeducators in inclusive classrooms: Their own perceptions. Remedial and Special Education, 12171–181.
19.
Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, PL 94–142, 20 U.S.C. §1400 et seq (1975).
20.
FisherD. (1999). According to their peers: Inclusion as high school students see it. Mental Retardation, 37458–467.
21.
FisherM.MeyerL. H. (2002). Development and social competence after two years enrolled in inclusive and self-contained educational programs. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 27165–174.
22.
FreemanS. F. N.AlkinM. C. (2000). Academic and social attainments of children with mental retardation in general education and special education settings. Remedial and Special Education, 213–18.
23.
GiangrecoM. F.EdelmanS. W.BroerS. M. (2003). Schoolwide planning to improve paraeducator supports. Exceptional Children, 7063–79.
24.
GiangrecoM. F.EdelmanS. W.BroerS. M.DoyleM. B. (2001). Paraprofessional support of students with disabilities: Literature from the past decade. Exceptional Children, 6845–63.
25.
HanrahanJ.GoodmanW.RapagnaS. (1990). Preparing mentally retarded students for mainstreaming: Priorities of regular class and special school teachers. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 94470–474.
26.
HodgeS. R.AmmahJ. O. A.CaseboltK.LamasterK.O'SullivanM. (2004). High school general physical education teachers' behaviors and beliefs associated with inclusion. Sport, Education and Society, 9395–419.
27.
HuntP.SotoG.MaierJ.DoeringK. (2003). Collaborative teaming to support students at risk and students with severe disabilities in general education classrooms. Exceptional Children, 69315–332.
28.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, PL 108–446, 118 Stat. 2647 (2004).
29.
IsaacsM. L.GreeneM.ValeskyT. (1998). Elementary counselors and inclusion: A statewide attitudinal survey. Professional School Counseling, 268–76.
30.
JanneyR. E.SnellM. E.BeersM. K.RaynesM. (1995). Integrating students with moderate and severe disabilities: Classroom teachers' beliefs and attitudes about implementing an educational change. Educational Administration Quarterly, 3186–114.
31.
JanzenL.WilgoshL.McDonaldL. (1995). Experiences of classroom teachers integrating students with moderate and severe disabilities. Developmental Disabilities Bulletin, 2340–57.
32.
KatsiyannisA.ZhangD.ArchwametyT. (2002). Placement and exit patterns for students with mental retardation: An analysis of national trends. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 37134–145.
33.
KennedyC. H.LongT.JolivetteK.CoxJ.TangJ.ThompsonT. (2001). Facilitating general education participation for students with behavior problems by linking positive behavior supports and person-centered planning. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 9161–172.
34.
KennedyC. H.ShuklaS.FryxellD. (1997). Comparing the effects of educational placement on the social relationships of intermediate school students with severe disabilities. Exceptional Children, 6431–47.
35.
KlingerJ. K.AhweeS.PilonietaP.MenendezR. (2003). Barriers and facilitators in scaling up research-based practices. Exceptional Children, 69411–429.
36.
LaneK. L.WehbyJ. H.CooleyC. (2006). Teacher expectations of students' classroom behavior across the grade span: Which social skills are necessary for success?Exceptional Children, 72153–167.
37.
MastropieriM. A.ScruggsT. E. (2001). Promoting inclusion in secondary classrooms. Learning Disability Quarterly, 24265–274.
38.
McLeskeyJ.WaldronN.SoT. H.SwansonK.LovelandT. (2001). Perspectives of teachers toward inclusive school programs. Teacher Education and Special Education, 24108–115.
39.
National Association of Secondary School Principals. (2000). Special education position statement. Reston, VA: Author.
40.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, PL 107–110, 115 Stat. 1425 (2002).
41.
O'ConnorJ.FrenchR. (1998). Paraprofessionals' attitudes toward inclusion of students with disabilities in physical education. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 86 98.
42.
PalmerD. S.FullerK.AroraT.NelsonM. (2001). Taking sides: Parent views on inclusion for their children with severe disabilities. Exceptional Children, 67467–484.
43.
PearmanE. L.HuangA. M.BarnhardM. W.MellblomC. (1992). Educating all students in school: Attitudes and beliefs about integration. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 27176–182.
44.
PeckC. A.StaubD.GallucciC.SchwartzI. (2004). Parent perception of the impacts of inclusion on their non-disabled child. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 29135–143.
45.
PraisnerC. L. (2003). Attitudes of elementary school principals toward the inclusion of students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 69135–145.
46.
President's Commission on Excellence in Special Education (2002). A new era: Revitalizing special education for children and their families. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services.
47.
RiehlC. J. (2000). The principal's role in creating inclusive schools for diverse students: A review of normative, empirical, and critical literature on the practice of educational administration. Review of Educational Research, 7055–81.
48.
RyndakD. L.FisherD. (2003). The foundations of inclusive education: A compendium of articles on effective strategies to achieve inclusive education (2nd ed.). Baltimore: TASH.
49.
SalendS. J.DuhaneyL. M. Garrick (1999). The impact of inclusion on students with and without disabilities and their educators. Remedial and Special Education, 20114–126.
50.
SandsD. J.AdamsL.StoutD. M. (1995). A statewide exploration of the nature and use of curriculum in special education. Exceptional Children, 6268–83.
51.
SchwartzI. S.BaerD. M. (1991). Social validity assessments: Is current practice state of the art?Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24189–204.
52.
ScruggsT. E.MastropieriM. A. (1996). Teacher perceptions of mainstreaming/inclusion, 1958–1995: A research synthesis. Exceptional Children, 6359–74.
53.
SimpsonR. L.de Boer-OttS.MylesB. (2003). Inclusion of learners with autism spectrum disorders in general education settings. Topics in Language Disorders, 23116–133.
54.
SmithR. M. (1997). Varied meanings and practice: Teachers' perspectives regarding high school inclusion. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 22235–244.
55.
SmithM. G. (2000). Secondary teachers' perceptions toward inclusion of students with severe disabilities. NASSP Bulletin, 8454–60.
56.
SnellM. (2003). Applying research to practice: The more pervasive problem?Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 28143–147.
57.
SoodakL. C.PodellD. M.LehmanL. R. (1998). Teacher, student, and school attributes as predictors of teachers' responses to inclusion. Journal of Special Education, 31480–497.
U. S. Department of Education. (2003). Twenty-fifth annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Author.
60.
WagnerM.CadwalladerT. W.MarderC. (2003). Life outside the classroom for youth with disabilities: A report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS). Menlo Park, CA:SRI International.
61.
WallaceT.AndersonA. R.BartholomayT. (2002). Collaboration: An essential element associated with the success of four inclusive high schools. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 13349–381.
62.
WehmeyerM. L.LanceG. D.BashinskiS. (2002). Promoting access to the general curriculum for students with mental retardation: A multi-level model. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 37223–234.
63.
WertsM. G.WoleryM.SnyderE. D.CaldwellN. K. (1996). Teachers' perceptions of the supports critical to the success of inclusion programs. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 219–21.
64.
WolfM. M. (1978). Social validity: The case for subjective measurement or How applied behavior analysis is finding its heart. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11203–214.
65.
YorkJ.TundidorM. (1995). Issues raised in the name of inclusion: Perspectives of educators, parents, and students. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 2031–44.
66.
ZhangD.WehmeyerM. L.ChenL. (2005). Parent and teacher engagement in fostering the self-determination of students with disabilities: A comparison between the United States and the Republic of China. Remedial and Special Education, 2655–64.
