This article examines urban renewal in Washington Park, a 502-acre area in the Roxbury section of Boston, the heart of the Black community, that the city made the center of its residential urban renewal program in the 1960s. It analyzes the way Washington Park, in contrast to earlier projects, emphasized rehabilitation, offered a “planning with people” approach that solicited community input, and witnessed the growth of social service programming for “people renewal.” The article discusses how instead of planning with the community, leaders of local community organization Freedom House worked with the Boston Redevelopment Authority to develop a project that privileged middle-class values of home ownership and community design over the needs and interests of the predominantly working-class residents.
Anthony J. Yudis, "Roxbury-Dorchester Citizens Air Views: All Boston Keeping Eyes on Washington Park Renewal," Boston Globe, December 18, 1961, in M16, box 28, folder 918, Freedom House, Inc. Records, Northeastern University Archives and Special Collections Department, Boston. Henceforth, this archival collection will be referenced as FH. Charlotte Saikowski, "Ready to Work: Roxbury Hopes Shine Again," Christian Science Monitor, January 23, 1963, in box 28, folder 920, FH; Robert L. Levey, "Complex Changes for Roxbury’s Spirit, Appearance," Boston Morning Globe, June 9, 1969, in box 28, folder 926, FH.
2.
Thomas O’Connor, Building a "New Boston": Politics and Urban Renewal 1950 to 1970 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1993), xiii; Edward J. Logue, "The Boston Story," in Planning 1964: Selected Papers from the ASPO National Planning Conference, Boston, Massachusetts, April 5-9, 1964 (Chicago: American Society of Planning Officials, 1964), 1; Jon C. Teaford, The Rough Road to Renaissance: Urban Revitalization in America, 1940-1985 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 147.
3.
Lawrence W. Kennedy, Planning the City Upon a Hill: Boston Since 1630 ( Amherst : The University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), 173.
4.
Ibid., 159; O’Connor, Building a "New Boston," xiii, 236.
5.
Christopher Silver, Twentieth Century Richmond: Planning, Politics, and Race (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984), 9, 175, 196, 201-2, 217, 225-29; John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1970 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987), 79, 83; Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 5, 8; Colin Gordon, "Mapping Decline: St. Louis and the Fate of the American City," in Politics and Culture in Modern America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 12. Lawrence Kennedy argues that there was close alignment between community groups and city officials for the Washington Park project, a contention with which this article disagrees. See Kennedy, Planning the City, 186-87.
6.
James Q. Wilson, "Planning and Politics: Citizen Participation in Urban Renewal," in Citizen Participation in Urban Development, vol. 1, Concepts and Issues (Washington, DC: Center for Community Affairs, NTL Institute for Applied Behavioral Science, 1968), 55; Kennedy, Planning the City , 188.
7.
Silver, Twentieth Century Richmond, 9, 201-2, 217, 280-81; Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal, 79, 84, 86, 98, 120, 139-40; Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis, 9; Howard Gillette Jr., "Camden after the Fall: Decline and Renewal in a Post-Industrial City," in Politics and Culture in Modern America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), 70; Charles E. Connerly, "The Most Segregated City in America": City Planning and Civil Rights in Birmingham, 1920-1980 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2005), 1, 197.
8.
Silver, Twentieth Century Richmond; Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal; Connerly, "The Most Segregated City in America"; Gillette, "Camden after the Fall"; June Manning Thomas, "Redevelopment and Race: Planning a Finer City in Postwar Detroit," in Creating the North American Landscape (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 6. Other literature on urban planning in Boston has put the focus on government actors and policy. See O’Connor, Building a "New Boston," and Kennedy, Planning the City.
9.
Sam B. Warner Jr., The Discarded Suburbs: Roxbury and North Dorchester 1800-1950 (Boston: ABCD, 1961), at Boston Public Library; Silver, Twentieth Century Richmond, 101-2; O’Connor, Building a "New Boston," 13-14; Gordon, "Mapping Decline," 10; Connerly, "The Most Segregated City in America," 29.
10.
Boston Redevelopment Authority (BRA), "Research Report: Washington Park" (Boston: BRA, June 1969), Map No. 4, Map No. 5; Gillette, "Camden after the Fall"; Thomas, "Redevelopment and Race," 83.
11.
Urban League of Greater Boston, "A Study of Negro Housing in Boston and Adjacent Cities in 1954," 5, 12, in box 55, folder 2201, FH; Gordon, "Mapping Decline," 9.
12.
William F. Homer, "Boston Citizens Plan to Clean City for Four-Day May Jubilee," Herald, April 17, 1950, in Hynes Scrapbooks, Rare Books Department, Boston Public Library; David E. Lane, "Did YOU Know . . ." report, June 18, 1953, in box 1, folder 1, FH; Frank Monaghan and Joan Foreman, "Sanitation Activities and the National Clean Up-Paint Up-Fix Up Program," Modern Sanitation (January 1954), in box 28, folder 909, FH.
13.
Teaford, The Rough Road to Renaissance, 30-31, 83, 91; Thomas, "Redevelopment and Race," 45.
14.
O’Connor, Building a "New Boston," 126-27; Silver, Twentieth Century Richmond, 9, 175, 196, 201-2, 205-6, 217, 265-66; Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal, 79, 139, 147, 181; Gillette, Camden after the Fall, 69-70; Gordon, "Mapping Decline," 49-50, 158-86; Teaford, The Rough Road to Renaissance, 12; Thomas, "Redevelopment and Race," 152-53.
15.
"Freedom House and Silva Sponsor Roxbury Play Areas," Boston Traveler, February 1952, in box 1, folder 59, FH; Daniel Beaton, "Negroes Proud of Renewal Project: Roxbury Morale High," Boston Traveler, February 12, 1952, in box 1, folder 59, FH; "Playgrounds in Upper Roxbury to Be Re-equipped," Roxbury Citizen, March 26, 1953, in box 28, folder 917, FH.
16.
For records of these groups, see box 29, folders 970-85, FH.
17.
Morton Rubin, "Organized Citizen Participation in Boston," in The Boston Urban Observatory (Boston: Boston University, The Urban Institute, 1971), 20-21.
18.
"Charter," January 27, 1950, 1-2, in box 1, folder 6, FH; Joan McPartlin, "Freedom House Buying New ‘Home’ in Roxbury," Boston Daily Globe, March 6, 1952, in box 1, folder 59, FH.
19.
Rubin, "Organized Citizen Participation in Boston," 26; William Weismantel, Collision of Urban Renewal with Zoning: The Boston Experience, 1950-1967 (PhD diss., Harvard University, 1967), 24, 44-47; Joel Schwartz calls this the "Robert Moses style." See Joel Schwartz, The New York Approach: Robert Moses, Urban Liberals, and the Redevelopment of the Inner City, Urban Life and Landscape Series (Columbus: Ohio State University Press) 106, 113, 126; Silver, Twentieth Century Richmond, 217, 233; Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal, 147, 149-55; Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis, 47-50.
20.
Zane L. Miller, Changing Plans for America’s Inner Cities: Cincinnati’s Over-The-Rhine and Twentieth Century Urbanism, Urban Life and Urban Landscape Series (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1998), 9-11.
21.
Teaford, The Rough Road to Renaissance, 113-15, 148, 154-55; O’Connor, Building a "New Boston," 125-39; Kennedy, Planning the City, 162-66.
22.
Kennedy, Planning the City, 171-74; O’Connor, Building a "New Boston," 177, 188-90, 195-97, 214.
23.
Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal, 120, 147; Thomas, "Redevelopment and Race," 121-22.
24.
Robert C. Moore, "Bay State Losing Millions in U.S. Rebuilding Aid: Communities Take Only Fourth of Available Funds for Renewal," February 16, 1959, in box 28, folder 918, FH; Logue, "The Boston Story," 7.
"Admit Error to Bypass Solons on Roxbury Plan," Boston Daily Globe, March 31, 1957, in box 28, folder 918, FH.
29.
"Disclose Plan for 1000-Acre Rehabilitation Project Here," Roxbury Citizen, March 5, 1959, in box 28, folder 918, FH; "Admit Error," in box 28, folder 918, FH; FH, "Memo: The Proposed Roxbury Renewal Area," to the Boston City Council, April 16, 1959, in box 28, folder 954, FH; Memorandum, October 8, 1959, in box 2, folder 140, FH; Richard Heath, An Act of Faith: The Building of the Washington Park Urban Renewal Area, 1960-1975 (Boston: Low Income Housing Advocacy & Research, 2005), Part I, 7-8.
30.
"Freedom House and Urban Renewal-The Task Accomplished and the Task Ahead," report, February 25, 1963, in box 28, folder 945, FH.
31.
Muriel Snowden, "Planning and Working with People," Boston Municipal Employees Ninth Annual Conferama: Boston’s Renewal and Rehabilitation Programs (Boston, 1964), 7.
32.
Wilson, "Planning and Politics," 56; Richard M. Kovak, "Urban Renewal Controversies," Public Administration Review 32, no. 4 (July-August 1972): 366; For an argument to the contrary for Washington Park, see Kennedy, Planning the City, 186-87, 189.
33.
"Urban Renewal in Washington Park and Madison Park," Dialogues Boston, vol. 1, no. 2, 8-9, in box 56, folder 2279, FH; Kovak, "Urban Renewal Controversies," 365.
34.
Heath, An Act of Faith, Part I, 8.
35.
"Urban Renewal in Washington Park and Madison Park."
36.
Robert B. Hanron , "Renewal Area Dawns: Roxbury Hears Logue Tell Plans for Homes," Evening Globe, February 3, 1961, in box 28, folder 918, FH.
37.
Heath, An Act of Faith, Part I, 9; Yudis, "Roxbury-Dorchester Citizens Air Views."
38.
Thomas, "Redevelopment and Race," 104-5, 110.
39.
Charles Lewis Jr., "The Bulldozers Are Coming. . . . Are You Ready?" unknown newspaper, February 3, 1962, in box 28, folder 919, FH.
40.
Gordon N. Gottsche, "Relocation Statement," June 25, 1962, in box 28, folder 955, FH.
41.
William H. Wells , "Find Relocation Housing, Council Tells Logue Again," Boston Globe, July 31, 1962, in box 28, folder 919, FH.
42.
William H. Wells, "Council OK’s Start of Roxbury Renewal," Boston Globe, August 14, 1962, in box 28, folder 919, FH; Anthony J. Yudis, "BRA’s Bid for $5 Million Loan OK’d: Roxbury Landtaking [sic] Near," Boston Globe, November 14, 1962, in box 28, folder 919, FH; "B.R.A. Files on Roxbury Properties," Boston Globe, December 6, 1962, in box 28, folder 919, FH.
43.
"‘Dream Roxbury’ Getting Closer: Plans Released to Residents," Boston Sun, December 26, 1962, in box 28, folder 919, FH; Anthony J. Yudis, "Board OK’s Salary Hikes, Washington Pk.," Boston Globe, January 17, 1963, in box 28, folder 919, FH; Heath, An Act of Faith, Part 1, 2; "Federal Officials to See Start of Roxbury Housing," Boston Globe, May 9, 1963, in box 28, folder 920, FH.
44.
Anthony J. Yudis, "Roxbury Moderate-Income Project to Start in July," Boston Globe, April 2, 1963, in box 28, folder 920, FH; "Federal Officials to See Start of Roxbury Housing," Boston Globe; George B. Merry, "Relocation Housing ‘Link’ Sought," Christian Science Monitor, January 31, 1963, box 28, folder 920, FH; Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal, 107-11; Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis, 50-55.
45.
Muriel Knight , "Another Phase of Urban Renewal in Washington Park," Roxbury City News, October 8, 1964, in box 28, folder 921, FH.
46.
Muriel Knight, "FHA Approval," in box 28, folder 921, FH.
47.
Boston Redevelopment Authority (BRA), "Racial Integration in 221 (d) (3) Housing Developments: Washington Park Urban Renewal Area," May 1966, 3. "Washington Park Wall Collapses," Traveler, January 4, 1965; "City Inspects Housing after Wall Collapse," Evening Globe, January 5, 1965; "‘Buttressing’ Ordered for Crumbling," Traveler, January 7, 1965; "No Title," Traveler, January 12, 1965, all in box 28, folder 922, FH.
48.
BRA, "Washington Park Urban Renewal Newsletter," no. 5, May 1966, in box 30, folder 1040, FH; "Shoppers Fill Washington Park Mall," Bay State Banner, October 8, 1966, in box 28, folder 923, FH.
49.
Kennedy, Planning the City, 177-86; Logue, "The Boston Story," 6; O’Connor, Building a "New Boston," 215-33; Kovak features a chart of outcomes for 1960s residential urban renewal projects. See Kovak, "Urban Renewal Controversies," 363-64.
50.
Julius Bernstein and Chester Hartman, "Must There Be Two Cities?" Boston Morning Globe, June 11, 1966; Harold Vaughan, letter, Afro-American, May 14, 1966, repr., Bay State Banner (Roxbury), June 4, 1966; Anthony J. Yudis, "Roxbury Housing: Should the Few Decide?" Morning Globe, April 28, 1966; Anthony J. Yudis, "Does 45-29 Vote Represent a 20,000-Resident Area?" Boston Globe, May 7, 1966; "Ash, Logue Clash in Public Housing Feud," Morning Globe, May 13, 1966, all in box 28, folder 92, FH; "Urban Renewal in Washington Park and Madison Park," 3-4; Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal, 124, 159, 167-80, 207.
51.
BRA, "Physical Progress Report (HUD 6000), Mass., R-24, Washington Park, June 30, 1969," 5, quoted in BRA, "Research Report," 15.
52.
BRA, "Financing Home Improvements: Washington Park Urban Renewal Area," report, 1967.
53.
Hugh L. Morris, "Washington Housing Report: Hub to Be ‘Test City’ for New Rehabilitation Plan," Boston Globe, in box 28, folder 920, FH.
54.
Kennedy, Planning the City, 183.
55.
Anthony J. Yudis, "1st Rehabilitation Loan Kicks Off Roxbury Project," Boston Globe, November 27, 1962, in box 28, folder 919, FH.
56.
"FHA Grants Top Loan in Roxbury," Boston Traveler , June 10, 1963, in box 28, folder 920, FH.
57.
"1/2 Million Private Investment in Washington Park," Boston-Roxbury City News, June 11, 1964, in box 28, folder 921, FH; Anthony J. Yudis, "Owners Shun Cost: Renewal Task Lags in Washington Park," Evening Globe, September 17, 1964, in box 28, folder 921, FH.
58.
Joint Center for Urban Studies of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University, "Planning Metropolitan Boston," report, April 1967, 10; Anthony J. Yudis, "Why Rehabilitation of Slums Is Toughest Part of Program," Boston Globe, February 12, 1963, in box 28, folder 920, FH; Anthony J. Yudis, "BRA to Put Seized Homes on Tax Rolls," Evening Globe, August 21, 1964, in box 28, folder 921, FH; BRA, "Summary of Rehabilitation Progress, Washington Park Urban Renewal Area, Period Ending June 30, 1969," 1, in BRA, "Research Report," 14; BRA, "Financing Home Improvements"; Wilson, "Planning and Politics," 55; Gillette, "Camden after the Fall," 163.
59.
"Washington Park Rehab Program: Opening of Pilot Project Scheduled for September 18," The New Boston Citizen, September 3, 1965, in box 28, folder 922, FH.
60.
"Once Neglected House Becomes a Show Place," Boston Herald, September 17, 1965, in box 28, folder 922, FH.
61.
Anthony J. Yudis , "Force Them to Clean Up: Washington Park Projects Causing Landlords Worries," Sunday Globe, April 17, 1966, in box 28, folder 923, FH.
62.
BRA, "Summary of Rehabilitation Progress," 14.
63.
Silver, Twentieth Century Richmond, 269-70; Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal, 149-55; Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis, 49-50.
64.
Housing and Home Finance Agency, "Estimated Housing Requirements and Resources for Displaced Families, Boston, Massachusetts, Washington Park, R-24, H-6122," in box 28, folder 960, FH. 65. Heath, An Act of Faith, Part I, 14. Despite the calculations, the BRA’s estimates presumed full compliance, barely any fluctuations in unit availability, and relied on old statistics from the 1960 Census. See "Urban Renewal in Washington Park and Madison Park," 5.
65.
Joan Smith to CAC Subcommittee on Relocation Housing, "Residential Relocation since 1960," September 20, 1965, in box 31, folder 1049, FH. Approximately 22 percent of residents were relocated in Washington Park, while 30 percent relocated to the broader Roxbury area, 26 percent to Dorchester, and 7 percent to nearby Jamaica Plain.
66.
Thomas, " Redevelopment and Race," 88.
67.
"Urban Renewal in Washington Park and Madison Park," 6.
68.
Silver, Twentieth Century Richmond, 301.
69.
Patrick A. Tompkins, "Planning and Working with People," Boston Conferama, 3-4.
70.
Rubin, " Organized Citizen Participation in Boston," iv.
71.
Press Release, December 4, 1963, in box 29, folder 987, FH.
72.
FH to Area I Residents, letter, January 29, 1964; "Reference: Rooming House 156 Ruthven Street," letter, March 12, 1964; Minutes, April 21, 1964; Petition, April 22, 1964; all in box 29, folder 987, FH.
73.
See e.g. Area 4, Minutes, February 17, 1964, in box 29, folder 990, FH; Area 6, Press Release, February 17, 1964, in box 29, folder 992, FH.
74.
Silver, Twentieth Century Richmond, 325.
75.
Bettyjean Murphy to Mrs. Snowden, "Planof [sic] Organization in Area 5," December 15, 1964, in box 29, folder 991, FH; FH, "Freedom House and Urban Renewal" [n.d.], in box 28, folder 945, FH; Kovak, "Urban Renewal Controversies," 361; Wilson, "Planning and Politics," 49, 51.
76.
"Meeting Report: Residents of Georgia and Harwell Streets," April 29, 1963, in box 29, folder 988, FH; Wilson, "Planning and Politics," 49.
77.
FH, "Washington Park Association of Apartment House Owners: Problems," in box 29, folder 978, FH.
78.
"Planning and Working with People," Boston Conferama, 8.
79.
Gordon, "Mapping Decline ," 145.
80.
"Minutes: Area 2," February 18, 1964, in box 29, folder 988, FH.
81.
"Minutes: Area 3," March 2, 1964, in box 29, folder 989, FH; "Minutes: Area 4," February 17, 1964, in box 29, folder 990, FH.
82.
"Draft: Washington Park Urban Renewal Plan Neighborhood Organizations, Review (January- May ’64)," in box 29, folder 990, FH.
83.
Miller, Changing Plans, 61.
84.
Rubin, " Organized Citizen Participation in Boston," iv.
85.
"Report of the Washington Park Steering Committee Meeting," May 1, 1961; "Report of the Washington Park Steering Committee," June 5, 1961; "Washington Park Steering Committee Tentative Subject Agenda for August 7, - September 11, 1961" [1961]; Washington Park Steering Committee to Mr. Lloyd Sinclair, June 26, 1961; all in box 30, folder 1018, FH.
86.
"Urban Renewal in Washington Park and Madison Park," 6-7.
87.
Malcolm E. Peabody Jr. to John F. Collins, April 10, 1963, in box 54, folder 2, John F. Collins Collection, Rare Books Department, Boston Public Library. Henceforth, this archival collection will be referenced as JFC. Muriel Snowden and John F. Jones, "A Progress Report," July 9, 1964, in box 30, folder 1023, FH; "Final Draft: By-Laws of the Citizens Advisory Committee [CAC]," September 22, 1964, in box 31, folder 1043, FH.
88.
CAC, Minutes, September 22, 1964; CAC, Minutes, November 23, 1964, in box 31, folder 1045, FH.
89.
BRA, "Racial Integration in 221 (d) (3) Housing Developments," 6.
90.
Saikowski, "Ready to Work."
91.
"Minutes: Area 2," in box 29, folder 988, FH.
92.
Miller, Changing Plans , 74, 81.
93.
Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal, 190-95.
94.
" Planning with People," 1.
95.
Action for Boston Community Development, Inc., "ABCD and Urban Renewal," January 11, 1965, Government Documents, Boston Public Library. Rubin, "Organized Citizen Participation in Boston," 42-43, 53; ABCD, Report, May 1, 1963, in box 54, folder 2, JFC.
96.
Robert M. Coard to Arthur Gartland, Melnea Cass, and Eric Hanson, "Staff Recommendations and Supporting Material for 1966 Community Action Program Allocations," Feburary 17, 1966, in box 55, folder 1, JFC; Francis X. Moloney to John F. Collins, "Recommendations for Improvement of ABCD Board and Committee Structure," March 25, 1966, in box 55, folder 2, JFC.
97.
Thomas, " Redevelopment and Race," 133.
98.
Dawn Swan, "The Natural History of a Professional Reform Organization: Roxbury Multi-Service Center" [n.d.], 8, in box 1, folder 5, MS 109, Roxbury Multi-Service Center Records, Northeastern University Archives, Boston. Henceforth, this collection will be referenced as RMSC. 100. Mrs. Helane Oredugba, "Introduction to Roxbury Multi-Service Center" [n.d.]; Swan, "The Natural History of a Professional Reform Organization," 7-11; both in box 1, folder 5, RMSC.
99.
Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal, 195-98; Connerly, "The Most Segregated City in America," 231-32, 237.
100.
"Roxbury Urban Renewal Complains Pile Up," Christian Science Monitor, March 24, 1966, in box 28, folder 923, FH.
101.
Connerly, "The Most Segregated City in America," 1, 197; Gillette, "Camden after the Fall," 70-72, 74.
102.
Silver, Twentieth Century Richmond, 288-99; Teaford, The Rough Road to Renaissance, 177-81.
103.
Congress on Racial Equality [CORE] (Boston), "Proposal for New CORE Housing Program," June 6, 1967, in M112, box 1, folder 3, Frank J. Miranda Papers, Northeastern University. Henceforth, this collection will be referenced as FJM. "One Year of Promise" [n.d.], in box 1, folder 3, FJM. For more detail, see CORE, "Case History of a Boston Slumlord as Recorded by Boston CORE," November 29, 1965, in box 1, folder 3, FJM; "How Does a Rent Strike Work" [n.d.], in box 1, folder 3, FJM; Christopher Lydon, "Hub Housing Record Hit," Morning Globe, November 25, 1964, in box 28, folder 921, FH; "Progress Report: Result of the Committee’s Investigation Concerning Rent Receivership and Code Enforcement," in box 31, folder 1045, FH.
104.
CORE, "Rent Strike for Housing Code Violations Is Legal on April 7, 1966," in box 1, folder 3, FJM.
105.
Ibid., "Proposal for a New CORE Housing Program," June 6, 1967, in box 1, folder 3, FJM.
106.
Memorandum by the Executive Director to the Housing Committee of the Urban League of Greater Boston, March 15, 1963; (Mrs.) Muriel Snowden to Dr. Robert Weaver, letter, May 6, 1963, in box 33, folder 1139, FH.
107.
Langley C. Keyes Jr., The Boston Rehabilitation Program: An Independent Analysis (Boston: Joint Center for Urban Studies of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University, 1970), 25, quoted in O’Connor, Building a "New Boston," 236.
108.
"Roxbury Renovators OK Tenant Complaint Panel," Herald Traveler, April 19, 1968, in box 28, folder 925, FH.
109.
Keyes, The Boston Rehabilitation Program, 1, 19; Anthony J. Yudis, "HUD Chief Lists Aid for Roxbury," Morning Globe, December 5, 1967, in box 28, folder 924, FH.
110.
"Statement from Grove Hall Development Corporation et al.," December 4, 1967, quoted in Keyes, The Boston Rehabilitation Program, 2; "Rollins Attacks FHA While Weaver Turns Back," Bay State Banner, December 7, 1967, in box 28, folder 924, FH.
111.
Melvin King to Robert Weaver, letter, December 1967, quoted in Keyes, The Boston Rehabilitation Program, 50.
112.
Gillette, "Camden after the Fall," 70-78; Thomas, "Redevelopment and Race," 127-31.
113.
Keyes, The Boston Rehabilitation Program, 31-39.
114.
Ibid., 25.
115.
"Change to Rehabilitation Programs Hurt Tenants," Dorchester-Roxbury Record, January 8, 1968, in box 28, folder 925, FH.
116.
"Roxbury Renovators OK Tenant Complaint Panel," Herald Traveler, April 19, 1968, in box 28, folder 925, FH; Keyes, The Boston Rehabilitation Program, 83-91.
117.
Kennedy, Planning the City , 197-98; Teaford, The Rough Road to Renaissance , 240.
118.
O’Connor, Building a "New Boston,"268.
119.
Silver, Twentieth Century Richmond, 175, 205, 323; Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal, 83-86; Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis, 5, 8-9.
120.
Connerly, "The Most Segregated City in America," 138-39, 255; Gillette, "Camden after the Fall," 3; Thomas, "Redevelopment and Race," 184; Teaford, The Rough Road to Renaissance, 196-97, 200; Gordon, "Mapping Decline," 176.
