This work argues that open space has been utilized by local planning practice for numerous reasons that have reflected the shifting concerns of the planning profession since the nineteenth century. An intellectual movement that romanticized nature as distinct from social processes and a changing political economy made it possible for open space to serve an interventionist role in addressing social concerns. Consequently, open space has been used to address urban concerns of health and sanitation, suburban concerns of exclusionary zoning, and more recently, to protect ecological functions and guide urban development. This has prevented a more thorough examination of the relationship between nature and society.
R. Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias: The Rise and Fall of Suburbia (New York : Basic Books, 1987), 8-10.
2.
D. Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 25-6.
3.
P.J. Schmitt, Back to Nature: The Arcadian Myth in Urban America (Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 56-9.
4.
I. Fisher, "Frederick Law Olmsted: The Artist as Social Agent" in The American Planner: Biographies and Recollections, ed. Don Krueckeberg, 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, NJ: CUPR Press, 1994), 41, 47.
5.
D. Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City form in Nineteenth-Century America, 28.
6.
R. Williams, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 290.
7.
J. Machor, Pastoral Cities: Urban Ideals and the Symbolic Landscape of America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press , 1987), 5.
8.
R. Williams, The Country and the City, 290.
9.
R. Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), 45.
10.
D. Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City form in Nineteenth-Century America, 45.
11.
N. Castree, "Socializing Nature: Theory, Practice, Politics" in Social Nature: Theory, Practice, and Politics, ed. Noel Castree and Bruce Braun (New York: Blackwell, 2001), 5-8.
12.
Naturally, there were exceptions. For example, Charles Eliot developed a 1893 regional open space plan for Boston based on riparian corridors.
13.
C. Elliot, Charles Eliot LandscapeArchitect (Boston: Houghton Mifflin , 1903), 338-9.
14.
I. Fisher, "Frederick Law Olmsted: The Artist as Social Agent," 56.
15.
As quoted in Burrows and Wallace, Gotham: A history of New York City to 1898 (New York: Oxford University Press , 1999), 791.
16.
I. Fisher, "Frederick Law Olmsted: The Artist as Social Agent," 41.
17.
However, it should be noted that local property owners, competition from other cities, and upper class need for promenade space were also contributing factors.
18.
A. Lusk, "Promoting Health and Fitness Through Design" in The Humane Metropolis: People and Nature in the 21st-Century City, ed. Rutherford Platt (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2006), 88.
19.
F.L. Olmsted , "Public Parks and the Enlargement of Towns" in Civilizing American Cities: A Selection of Frederick Law Olmsteds Writings on City Landscapes, ed. S.B. Sutton (Cambridge and London : MIT Press, 1971), 70.
20.
J. Nolen, "The Parks and Recreational Facilities in the US" reprinted from the Annals of the American Academy of Political and social science, March 1910 (Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library, John Nolen Papers, 2903:56).
21.
L. Buell, Writing for and Endangered World: Literature, Culture and Environment in the US and Beyond (Cambridge and London : Harvard University Press, 2001 ).
22.
C. Hughes, Why We Want Playgrounds proceedings of the 2nd Annual Playground Congress, Playground Association of America (Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library, John Nolen collection, 6733:8).
23.
C. Elliot, Charles Eliot Landscape Architect, 340.
24.
Editorial, Charities and the Commons, July 7, 1906, Vol. 16, no. 14(Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library, John Nolen collection, 6733:5).
25.
As quoted in I. Fisher, "Frederick Law Olmsted: The Artist as Social Agent," 56.
26.
C. Elliot, C. Charles Eliot Landscape Architect, 340.
27.
As quoted in E. Burrows,. and M. Wallace, Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898, 793.
28.
F.L. Olmsted , "Public Parks and the Enlargement of Towns," 75.
29.
As quoted in D. SchuylerThe New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America, 65.
30.
J. Nolen, What is Needed in American City Planning address at the 1st National Conference on City Planning, Washington DC, May 21-22, 1909 (Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library John Nolen Papers, 2903:56).
31.
As quoted in Burrows and Wallace Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898, 795.
32.
R. Rosenzweig , and E. Blackmar, The Park and the People: A History of Central Park (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992).
33.
J. Nolen, City Planning article for the National League Municipal Encyclopedia, not published (Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library John Nolen Papers, 2903:1).
34.
R. Rosenzweig , and E. Blackmar, The Park and the people: A History of Central Park, 233.
35.
F.L. Olmsted, Riverside, Illinois: A Planned Community Near Chicago, in Civilizing American Cities: A Selection of Frederick Law Olmsteds Writings on City Landscapes, ed. S. B. Sutton (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1971), 295.
36.
D. Hayden, Building Suburbia: Green Fields and Urban Growth 1820-2000 ( New York: Pantheon Books, 2003), 50.
37.
V.S. Jenkins, The Lawn: A History of an American Obsession (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994), 15.
38.
A.J. Downing, Cottage Residences, Rural Architecture, and Landscape Gardening ( American Life Foundation, 1967), 68.
39.
Ibid, 100-101.
40.
Schmitt Back to Nature: The Arcadian myth in Urban America.
41.
F .L. Olmsted, "Riverside, Illinois: A Planned Community Near Chicago," 293.
42.
As quoted in Fishman Bourgeois Utopias: The Rise and Fall of Suburbia, 129.
43.
Fishman, BourgeoisUtopias: The Rise and Fall of Suburbia, 132.
44.
D. Hayden, Building Suburbia: Green Fields and Urban Growth 1820-2000, 69.
45.
Schmitt, Back to Nature: The Arcadian myth in Urban America, 5.
46.
D. Pepper, The Roots of Modern Environmentalism (New York: Routledge, 1984), 76-8.
47.
J. Nolen, "Land Subdivision and its effect upon housing" vol. 12, no. 4, October 15, pp. 258-66 (Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library John Nolen Papers, 2903:9).
48.
D. Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America, 163.
49.
As quoted in Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias: The Rise and Fall of Suburbia, 120.
50.
J.C. Nichols , Real Estate Subdivisions: The Best Manner of Handling Them address at the 5th annual convention, National Association of Real Estate Exchanges at Louisville, Kentucky, June 20, 1912 ( Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library, 6733:2).
51.
Ibid.
52.
C. Haar, and J. Kayden, ed. Zoning and the American Dream: Promises Still to Keep (Chicago: APA Press, 1990).
53.
G. Ford, What Planning Has Done for Cities, address at the National Conference of City Planning, 1924 (Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library John Nolen Collection, 6733:2).
54.
R. Whitten , AICP president, The Control of the Subdivision of Land into Building Lots (Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library John Nolen Collection, 6733:3).
55.
P. Abeles, "Planning and Zoning" in Zoning and the American Dream: Promises Still to Keep, eds. Charles Haar and Jerold Kayden ( Chicago: American Planning Association Press, 1990), 131.
56.
R. Platt, "From Commons to Commons: Evolving concepts of open space in North American cities" in The Ecological City: Preserving and Restoring Urban Biodiversity, eds. Rutherford Platt , Rowan Rowntree and Pamela Muick (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1994), 32.
57.
E.F. Murphy, "Euclid and the Environment" in Zoning and the American Dream: Promises Still to Keep, eds. Charles Haar and Jerold Kayden ( Chicago: American Planning Association Press, 1990).
58.
Ibid, 170.
59.
M. Scott, American City Planning Since 1890 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969).
60.
M. Knowles, "The controls of subdivisions by planning commissions," address at the Spring meeting of the American City Planning Institute , March 14, 1935 (Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library John Nolen Papers, 6733:9).
61.
R. Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1993).
62.
As quoted in A. Rome , The Bulldozer in the Countryside: Suburban Sprawl and the Rise of American Environmentalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 153.
63.
D. Harvey, "The Environment of Justice" in The Urbanization of Injustice, ed. Andy Merrifield (New York: New York University Press, 1997).
64.
I. McHarg, Design with Nature (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1992), 19.
65.
M. Hough, Cities and Natural Processes (London and New York: Routledge, 1995), 8.
66.
Water quality has improved and, in recognition of this improvement, the Cuyahoga River was designated as one of 14 American Heritage Rivers in 1998.
67.
A. Rome, The Bulldozer in the Countryside: Suburban Sprawl and the Rise of American Environmentalism, 9-10.
68.
A. Rome, The Bulldozer in the Countryside: Suburban Sprawl and the Rise of American Environmentalism.
69.
R.G. Arendt, Growing Greener: Putting Conservation into Local plans and Ordinances. (Washington DC: Island Press, 1999).
70.
I. McHarg , To Heal the Earth (Washington DC: Island Press, 1998), 108-9.
71.
Ibid, 110.
72.
O. Gillham, The Limitless City: A Primer on the Urban Sprawl Debate ( Washington DC: Island Press, 2002 ).
73.
A. Nelson, "How do we know smart growth when we see it?" in Smart Growth: Forms and Consequences, eds. Terry Szold, T. and Armando Carbonell (Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, 2002), 86.
74.
D. Bengston , J. Fletcher, and K. Nelson, "Public Policies for managing urban growth and protecting open space: policy instruments and lessons learned in the United States," Landscape and Urban Planning69, 2004, 271-86.
75.
P. Myers, and R. Puentes, Growth at the Ballot Box: Electing the Shape of Communities in November 2000 (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institute, Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy, 2001 ) and Hollis, Linda E., William Fulton. Open Space Protection, Conservation Meets Growth Management (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy, 2002).
76.
See R. Brewer , Conservancy: The Land Trust Movement in America (Dartmouth College Press, 2004).
77.
R. Platt, "From Commons to Commons: Evolving concepts of open space in North American cities".
78.
J. Kayden, Privately owned public space: The New York City experience ( New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2000 ).
79.
M. Hough, Cities and Natural Processes.
80.
R. Williams, Problems in Materialism and Culture: Selected Essay (London : Verso, 1990), 76.
81.
N. Castree, "Socializing Nature: Theory, Practice, Politics", 5.
82.
N. Castree, "Socializing Nature: Theory, Practice, Politics", 6.
83.
See C. Fausold , and R. Lilieholm, "The Economic Value of Open Space: A Review and Synthesis," Environmental Management23 (3), 1999, 307-20.
