By focusing on the U.S. military’s support of affirmative action in recent affirmative action cases, this conceptual article posits that there are lessons to be learned from the military by postsecondary scholars, practitioners, and policy makers who support race-conscious policies in higher education. This suggestion rests on two points—first, the military’s explicit focus and reasoning for diversifying its leadership corps, and second, the military’s explicit race-conscious approach to racial integration.
AbramsR. M. (1989). The US military and higher education: A brief history. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 502, 15-28.
2.
AltW. E.AltB. L. (2002). Black soldiers, white wars: Black warriors from antiquity to the present. Westport, CT: Praeger.
BellD. A.Jr. (1980). Brown v. Board of Education and the interest-convergence dilemma. Harvard Law Review, 93, 518-533.
6.
BellD. A. (2004). Silent covenants: Brown v. Board of Education and the unfulfilled hopes for racial reform. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
7.
BowmanN. A. (2011). Promoting participation in a diverse democracy: A meta-analysis of college diversity experiences and civic engagement. Review of Educational Research, 81, 29-68.
8.
BrayboyB. M. J. (2005). Toward a tribal critical race theory in education. The Urban Review, 37, 425-446.
9.
Brief of Lt. Gen. Julius W. Becton, Jr., Adm. Dennis Blair, Maj. Gen. Charles Bolden. Hon. James M. Cannon, Lt. Gen. Daniel W. Christman, Gen. Wesley K. Clark, Sen. Max Cleland, Adm. Archie Clemins, Hon. William Cohen, Adm. William J. Crowe, Gen. Ronald R. Fogelman, Lt. Gen. Howard D. Graves, Gen. Joseph P. Hoar, Sen. Robert J. Kerrey, et al. as Amici Curiae in support of Respondents. Grutter v. Bollinger et al., No. 02-241 (2003); Gratz v. Bollinger et al., No. 02-516 (2003).
10.
Brief of Lt. Gen. Julius W. Becton, Jr., Gen. John P. Abizaid, Adm Dennis C. Blair, Gen. Bryan Doug Brown, Lt. Gen. Daniel Christman, Gen. Wesley K. Clark, Adm. Archie Clemins, Gen. Ronald R. Fogelman, et al. as Amici Curiae in support of Respondents. Fisher v. University of Texas, et al., No. 11-345 (2012).
11.
Brief of Lt. Gen. Julius W. Becton, Jr., Adm. Gen. John P. Abzaid, Adm. Dennis C. Blair, Maj. Gen. Bryan Doug Brown, Gen. George Casey, Lt. Gen. Daniel W. Christman, Gen. Wesley K. Clark, Adm. Archie Clemins, Gen Ann E. Dunwoody, Adm. Edmund P. Giambastiani, Jr., et al. as Amici Curiae in support of Respondents. Fisher v. University of Texas, et al., No. 14-981 (2015).
Brown-NaginT. (2005). Elites, social movements, and the law: The case of affirmative action. Columbia Law Review, 105, 1436-1528.
15.
BuenavistaT. L. (2012). Citizenship at a cost: Undocumented Asian youth perceptions and the militarization of immigration. Asian American and Pacific Islander Nexus, 10, 101-124.
16.
BuenavistaT. L.GonzalesJ. B. (2010). DREAMs deterred: Filipino experiences and an anti-militarization critique of the development, relief, and education for alien minors act. Asian American Policy Review, 21, 29-
17.
BurkB.EspinozaE. (2012). Race relations within the US military. Annual Review of Sociology, 38, 401-422.
18.
CarnevaleA. P.RoseS. J. (2003). Socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, and selective college admissions. A century foundation paper. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED482419.pdf
19.
CarnevaleA. P.StrohlJ. (2013). Separate & unequal: How higher education reinforces the intergenerational reproduction of White racial privilege. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce.
20.
ChangM. J. (1999). Does racial diversity matter? The educational impact of a racially diverse undergraduate population. Journal of College Student Development, 40(4), 377-395.
21.
ChangM. J.DensonN.SaenzV.MisaK. (2006). The educational benefits of sustaining cross-racial interaction among undergraduates. The Journal of Higher Education, 77(3), 430-455.
22.
ChapaJ.De La RosaB. (2006). The problematic pipeline: Demographic trends and Latino participation in graduate science, technology, engineering, and mathematics programs. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 5, 203-221.
23.
CherwitzR. A. (2005). Diversifying graduate education: The promise of intellectual entrepreneurship. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 4, 19-33.
24.
CohenA. M.KiskerC. B. (2009). The shaping of American higher education: Emergence and growth of the contemporary system. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
25.
CokorinosL. (2003). The assault on diversity: An organized challenge to racial and gender justice. Landham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
26.
CollinsP. M. (2004). Friends of the court: Examining the influence of amicus curiae participation in US Supreme Court litigation. Law & Society Review, 38(4), 807-832.
27.
CrenshawK. W. (2007). Framing affirmative action. Michigan Law Review First Impressions, 105, 123-133.
28.
CrossT.SlaterR. B. (1997). Special report: Why the end of affirmative action would exclude all but a very few blacks from America’s leading universities and graduate schools. The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 17, 8-17.
29.
DansbyM. R.StewartJ. B.WebbS. C. (Eds.). (2012). Managing diversity in the military: Research perspectives from the Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
30.
Delgado BernalD.AlemánE.Jr.Flores CarmonaJ. (2008). Transnational and transgenerational Latina/o cultural citizenship among kindergarteners, their parents, and University of Utah. Social Justice, 35, 28-49.
31.
Delgado BernalD.AlemánE.Jr.GaravitoA. (2009). Latina/o undergraduate students mentoring Latina/o elementary students: A borderlands analysis of shifting identities and first-year experiences. Harvard Educational Review, 79, 560-585.
32.
DempseyJ. K.ShapiroR. Y. (2009). The army’s Hispanic future. Armed Forces & Society, 35, 526-561.
33.
DixsonA. D.RousseauC. K. (2005). And we are still not saved: Critical race theory in education ten years later. Race Ethnicity and Education, 8, 7-27.
34.
DonaldsonG. A. (1991). The history of African-Americans in the military. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing.
35.
EngbergM. E.HurtadoS. (2011). Developing pluralistic skills and dispositions in college: Examining racial/ethnic group differences. The Journal of Higher Education, 82, 416-443.
36.
FeaginJ. R. (2014). Racist America: Roots, current realities, and future reparations (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
37.
Fisher v. University of Texas, 133 St. Ct. 2411 (2013).
38.
Fisher v. University of Texas, 579 U.S.___ (2016).
39.
FrymerP.SkrentnyJ. D. (2003). Rise of instrumental affirmative action: Law and the new significance of race in America. The Connecticut Law Review, 36, 667-723.
40.
FurumotoR. (2005). No poor child left unrecruited: How NCLB codifies and perpetuates urban school militarism. Equity & Excellence in Education, 38, 200-210.
41.
GándaraP. (2010). The Latino education crisis. Educational Leadership, 67, 24-30.
42.
GarcesL. M. (2012). Racial diversity, legitimacy, and the citizenry: The impact of affirmative action bans on graduate school enrollment. The Review of Higher Education, 36, 93-132.
43.
GarcesL. M. (2013). Understanding the impact of affirmative action bans in different graduate fields of study. American Educational Research Journal, 50(2), 251-284.
44.
GarcesL. M.Mickey-PabelloD. (2015). Racial diversity in the medical profession: The impact of affirmative action bans on underrepresented student of color matriculation in medical schools. The Journal of Higher Education, 86, 264-294.
45.
GarzaI. (2015). Advertising patriotism: The “Yo Soy El Army” campaign and the politics of visibility for Latina/o youth. Latino Studies, 13, 245-268.
46.
Gratz v. Bollinger et al., 539 U.S. 244 (2003).
47.
GronerJ. (2003). “In ‘Grutter v. Bollinger’ amicus avalanche, one brief stood out,”Law.com, July2, 2003.
48.
Grutter v. Bollinger et al., 539 U.S. 203 (2003).
49.
GurinP.DeyE.HurtadoS.GurinG. (2002). Diversity and higher education: Theory and impact on educational outcomes. Harvard Educational Review, 72, 330-367.
50.
GurinP.NagdaB. R. A.LopezG. E. (2004). The benefits of diversity in education for democratic citizenship. Journal of Social Issues, 60, 17-34.
HopeR. O. (1979). Racial strife in the U.S. military: Toward the elimination of discrimination. New York, NY: Praeger Publications.
53.
HurtadoS. (2005). The next generation of diversity and intergroup relations research. Journal of Social Issues, 61, 595-610.
54.
HurtadoS.DeAngeloL. (2012). Linking diversity and civic-minded practices with student outcomes. Liberal Education, 98(2), 14-23.
55.
HurtadoS.SáenzV. B.SantosJ. L.CabreraN. L. (2008). Advancing in higher education: A portrait of Latina/o college freshmen at four-year institutions: 1975-2006. Los Angeles, CA: Higher Education Research Institute, University of California.
56.
JayakumarU. (2008). Can higher education meet the needs of an increasingly diverse and global society? Campus diversity and cross-cultural workforce competencies. Harvard Educational Review, 78, 615-651.
57.
KerrC. (2001). The uses of the university (5th ed.). Cambridge, UK: Harvard University Press.
58.
Keyishian v. Board of Regents, 385 U.S. 589 (1967).
LabareeD.F. (2016). Learning to love the bomb: The cold war brings the best of times to American higher education. In SmeyersP.DapaepeM. (Eds.), Educational research: Discourses and change and changes of discourse (pp. 101-118). Switzerland: Springer.
62.
Ladson-BillingsG.TateW.IV. (1995). Toward a critical race theory of education. The Teachers College Record, 97, 47-68.
63.
LipsonD. N. (2008). Where’s the justice? Affirmative action’s severed civil rights roots in the age of diversity. Perspectives on Politics, 6, 691-706.
64.
LiuG. (1998). Affirmative action in higher education: The diversity rationale and the compelling interest test. Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 33, 381-442.
65.
LutzA. (2008). Who joins the military? A look at race, class, and immigration status. Journal of Political and Military Sociology, 36, 167-188.
66.
LutzC.BartlettL. (1995). Making soldiers in the public schools: An analysis of the army JROTC curriculum. Philadelphia, PA: American Friends Service Committee.
67.
MacGregorM. J.Jr (1981). Integration of the armed forces, 1940-1965 (Vol. 1). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
68.
MariscalJ. (2003). Latinos on the front lines, again. Latino Studies, 1, 347-351.
69.
MariscalJ. (2004, November). No where else to go: Latino youth and the poverty draft. Political Affairs.
70.
MariscalJ. (2005). Homeland security, militarism, and the future of Latinos and Latinas in the United States. Radical History Review, 93, 39-50.
71.
MilemJ. F.ChangM. J.AntonioA. L. (2005). Making diversity work on campus: A research-based perspective. Washington, DC: Association American Colleges and Universities.
72.
MilemJ. F.Clayton-PedersenA. R.HurtadoS.AllenW. R. (1998). Enhancing campus climates for racial/ethnic diversity: Educational policy and practice. The Review of Higher Education, 21, 279-302.
73.
MollerM. K. (2004). Race, “national security,” and unintended consequences: A sideways glance at Brown v. Board of Education at fifty. Loyola University Chicago Law Journal, 36, 101-128.
74.
MonfortiJ. L.McGlynA. (2010). The poverty draft? Exploring the role of socioeconomic status in U.S. military recruitment of hispanic students. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, 2–5 September, Washington, DC.
75.
MoskosC. C.ButlerJ. S. (1996). All that we can be: Black leadership and racial integration the army way. New York, NY: Basic Books.
76.
MuseusS. D.JayakumarU. M. (Eds.). (2012). Creating campus cultures: Fostering success among racially diverse student populations. New York, NY: Routledge.
77.
MuseusS. D.LedesmaM. C.ParkerT. L. (2015). Racism and racial equity in higher education. ASHE Higher Education Report, 42, 1-112.
78.
NaltyB. C.MacGregorM. J. (1981). Blacks in the military: Essential documents. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources.
79.
NúñezA.SparksP. J.HernándezE. A. (2011). Latino access to community colleges and Hispanic-serving institutions: A national study. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 10, 18-40.
80.
OsegueraL.AstinA. W. (2004). The declining “equity” of American higher education. The Review of Higher Education, 27, 321-341.
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, 98 S.Ct.2733 (1978).
84.
Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action, 572 U.S.____ (2014).
85.
SmithD. G. (2015). Diversity’s promise for higher education: Making it work. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press.
86.
SmithD. G.SchonfeldN. B. (2000). The benefits of diversity: What the research tells us. About Campus, 5(5), 16-23.
87.
SolorzanoD. G.VillalpandoO.OsegueraL. (2005). Educational inequities and Latina/o undergraduate students in the United States: A critical race analysis of their educational progress. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 4, 272-294.
The Unsung Heroes behind the Grutter Decision. (2003). The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, (42), 36-37. doi:10.2307/3592431
90.
ThelinJ. R. (2011). A history of American higher education (2nd ed.). Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press.
91.
ToobinJ. (2007). The nine: Inside the secret world of the Supreme Court. New York, NY: Doubleday.
92.
TurnerC. S. V.GonzalezJ. C.WoodJ. L. (2008). Faculty of color in academe: What 20 years of literature tells us. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 1, 139-168.
93.
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2016). The condition of education 2016 (NCES 2016-144), characteristics of postsecondary faculty. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=61
YossoT.SmithW.CejaM.SolórzanoD. (2009). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate for Latina/o undergraduates. Harvard Educational Review, 79, 659-691.
96.
Zamani-GallaherE. M.GreenD. O.BrownM. C.StovallD. O. (2009). The case for affirmative action on campus: Concepts of equity, considerations for practice. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing LLC.
