Research examined the influence of native vocabulary development on cross-language transfer of phonemic awareness. Participants were Spanish-speaking kindergartners learning English in immersion classrooms. Results indicated that limited Spanish vocabulary development negatively influenced cross-language transfer of phonemic awareness to English. The results have clear and profound implications for Spanish-speaking children. Without foundational Spanish vocabulary skills needed to facilitate cross-language transfer of phonemic awareness to English, literacy acquisition difficulties will likely arise.
Esta investigación examina la influencia en el desarrollo del vocabulario nativo en la transferencia de lenguaje cruzado con atención fonética. Los participantes fueron niños de preprimaria de habla hispana que estaban aprendiendo inglés en salones de inmersión total. Los resultados indicaron que el desarrollo limitado de vocabulario en español influenció negativamente la transferencia de lenguaje cruzado en atención fonética de inglés. Los resultados tienen implicaciones claras y profundas pare niños de habla hispana. Sin las habilidades fundamentales de vocabulario en español necesarias para facilitar la transferencia del lenguaje cruzado de atención fonética en inglés es posible que se formen dificultades de adquisición literaria.
Adams, M. ( 1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print . Cambridge: MIT Press.
2.
Adams, M., Foorman, B., Lundberg, I., & Beeler, T. ( 1998). The elusive phoneme: Why phonemic awareness is so important and how to help children develop it. American Educator, Spring-Summer, 18-22.
3.
Administration for Children and Families. ( 2005). Head Start impact study: First year findings. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
4.
Administration for Children and Families. ( 2006). Head Start performance measures center: Family and Child Experiences Survey (FACES 2000). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
5.
Anthony, J., & Lonigan, C. ( 2004). The nature of phonological awareness: Converging evidence from studies of preschool and early grade school children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 43-55.
6.
Anthony, J., Lonigan, C., Burgess, S., Driscoll, K., Phillips, B., & Cantor, B. ( 2002). Structure of preschool phonological sensitivity: Overlapping sensitivity to rhyme, words, syllables, and phonemes. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 82, 65-92.
7.
Atwill, K., Blanchard, J., Gorin, J., & Burstein, K. ( 2007). L1 receptive vocabulary ability influences cross language transfer of phonemic awareness in kindergartners. Journal of Educational Research, 100, 336-345.
8.
August, D., Carlo, M., Dressler, C., & Snow, C. ( 2005). The critical role of vocabulary development for English language learners. Learning Disabilities Research Journal , 20, 50-57.
9.
August, D., & Hakuta, K. (Eds.). (1997). Improving schooling for language minority children: A research agenda. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
10.
August, D., & Shanahan, T. (Eds.). (2007). Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the national literacy panel on language-minority children and youth. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
11.
Bialystok, E., Luk, G., & Kwan, E. ( 2005). Bilingualism, bi-literacy, and learning to read: Interactions among languages and writing systems. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9, 43-61.
12.
Bialystok, E., McBride-Chang, C., & Luk, G. ( 2005). Bilingualism, language proficiency, and learning to read in two writing systems. Journal of Educational Psychology , 97, 580-590.
13.
Borman, G., Slavin, R., Cheung, A., Chamberlain, A., Madden, N., & Chambers B. ( 2007). Final reading outcomes of the national randomized field trial of Success for All. American Educational Research Journal , 44, 701-731.
14.
Bowey, J. ( 1995). Socioeconomic status differences in phonological sensitivity and first-grade reading achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 476-487.
15.
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. ( 1983). Categorizing sounds and learning to read-A causal connection . Nature, 301, 419-421.
16.
Bryant, P., & Goswami, U. ( 1987). Beyond grapheme-phoneme correspondence. Cahier de Psychologie Cognitive, 7, 439-443.
17.
Byrne, B. ( 2005). Theories of learning to read. In M. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), The science of reading (pp.104-119). London: Guilford.
18.
Calfee, R. ( 1977). Assessment of individual reading skills: Basic research and practical applications. In A. Reber & D. Scarborough (Eds.), Toward a psychology of reading (pp. 289-323). New York: Erlbaum.
19.
Cardoso-Martins, C., & Pennington, B. (2004). The relationship between phoneme awareness and rapid serial naming skills and literacy acquisition: The role of developmental period and reading ability. Scientific Studies of Reading, 8, 27-52.
20.
Carlisle, J., Beeman, M., Davis, L., & Spharim, G. ( 1999). The relationship of metalinguistic capabilities and reading achievement for children who are becoming bilingual. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20, 459-478.
21.
Carlisle, J., Beeman, M., & Shah, P. ( 1996). The metalinguistic capabilities and English literacy of Hispanic high school students: An exploratory study. In D. Leu, C. Kinzer, & K. Hincham (Eds.), Literacies for the 21st century: Research and practice (pp. 306-316). Chicago: National Reading Conference.
22.
Carroll, J., Snowling, M., Hulme, C., & Stevenson, J. ( 2003). The development of phonological awareness in preschool children. Developmental Psychology, 39, 913-923.
23.
Catts, H., Fey, M., Zhang, X., & Tomblin, J. ( 1999). Language basis of reading and reading disabilities. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36, 948-988.
24.
Chard, D., & Dickson, S. ( 1999). Phonological awareness: Instructional and assessment guidelines. Intervention in School and Clinic, 34, 261-270.
25.
Chen, X., Anderson, R., Li, W., Hao, M., Wu, X., & Shu, H. ( 2004). Phonological awareness of bilingual and monolingual Chinese children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 142-151.
26.
Chiappe, P., Glaeser, B., & Ferko, D. ( 2007). Speech perception, vocabulary, and the development of reading skills in English among Korean- and English-speaking children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 154-166.
27.
Chiappe, P., & Siegel, L. ( 1999). Phonological awareness and reading acquisition in English-and Punjabi-speakingCanadian children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 20-28.
28.
Chomsky, N. ( 1968). Language and mind. New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World.
29.
Chow, B., McBride-Chang, C., & Burgess, S. ( 2005). Phonological processing skills and early reading abilities in Hong Kong Chinese kindergarteners learning to read English as a second language. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 81-87.
30.
Cisero, C., & Royer, J. ( 1995). The development of cross-language transfer of phonological awareness. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 20, 275-303.
31.
Coady, J. ( 1997). L2 vocabulary acquisition through extensive reading. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition (pp. 225-237). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
32.
Cohen, J. ( 1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
33.
Collier, V. ( 1995). Acquiring a second language for school. Directions in Language and Education, 1, 1-11.
34.
Comeau, L., Cormier, P., Grandmaison, E., & Lacroix, D. ( 1999). A longitudinal study of phonological processing skills in children learning to read in a second language. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 29-43.
35.
Cummins, J. ( 1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49, 222-251.
36.
Delgado, R. ( 2008). The instructional dynamics of a bilingual teacher: One teacher’s beliefs about English language learners. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 7, 43-53.
37.
Dickinson, D., & McCabe, A. (2001). Bringing it all together: The multiple origins, skills, and environmental supports of early literacy . Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 16, 186-202.
38.
Dickinson, D., McCabe, A., Clark-Chiarelli, N., & Wolf, A. ( 2004). Cross-language transfer of phonological awareness in low-income Spanish and English bilingual preschool children. Applied Psycholinguistics, 25, 323-347.
39.
Dunn, L., & Dunn, L. ( 1997). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Third Edition. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
40.
Dunn, L., Padilla, E., Lugo, D., & Dunn, L. ( 1986). Test de Vocabulario en Imágenes Peabody, Adaptación Hispanoamericana. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
41.
Durgunoglu, A., Nagy, W., & Hancin-Bhatt, B. (1993). Cross-language transfer of phonological awareness. Journal of Educational Psychology , 85, 453-465.
42.
Durgunoglu, A., & Oney, B. ( 2000). Literacy development in two languages: Cognitive and sociocultural dimensions of cross-language transfer. In A research symposium on high standards in reading for students from diverse language groups: Research, practice and policy (pp. 78-99). Washington, DC : Department of Education.
43.
Durgunoglu, A., & Roediger, H. ( 1987). Test differences in accessing bilingual memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 26, 377-391.
44.
Elliott, J., Lee, S., & Tollefson, N. ( 2001). A reliability and validity study of the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills-Modified. School Psychology Review, 30, 33-49.
45.
Entwisle, D., & Alexander, K. ( 1999). Early schooling and social stratification. In R. Pianta & M. Cox (Eds.), The transition to kindergarten (pp. 13-38). Baltimore : Paul H. Brookes.
46.
Fletcher, J., Espy, K., Francis, D., Davidson, K., Rourke, B., & Shaywitz, B. ( 1989). Comparisons of cutoff and regression-based definitions of reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities , 22, 334-338.
47.
Foster, W., & Miller, M. ( 2007). Development of the literacy achievement gap: A longitudinal study of kindergarten through third grade. Language, Speech, and Hearing Sciences in Schools, 38, 173-181.
48.
Fry, R. ( 2007, June 6). How far behind in math and reading are English language learners? (Pew Hispanic Center Report). Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center.
49.
Geva, E., & Zadeh, Z. ( 2006). Reading efficiency in native English-speaking and English-as-a-second-language children: The role of oral proficiency and underlying cognitive-linguistic processes. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10, 31-57.
50.
Gillon, G. ( 2005). Phonological awareness: From research to practice. London: Guilford.
51.
Good, R., Bank, N. , & Watson, J. (Eds.). ( 2003). Indicadores Dinámicos del Exito en la Lectura (6ta ed.). Eugene, OR: Institute for the Development of Educational Achievement.
52.
Good, R., & Kaminski, R. (Eds.). (2002). Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (6th ed.). Eugene, OR: Institute for the Development of Education Achievement.
53.
Good, R., Simmons, D., & Smith, S. ( 1998). School psychology in the United States and effective academic interventions: Evaluation and enhancing the acquisition of early reading skills. School Psychology Review, 27, 45-56.
54.
Good, R., Wallin, J., Simmons, D., Kame’enui, E., & Kaminski, R. ( 2002). System-wide percentile ranks for DIBELS benchmark assessment (Tech. Rep. No. 9). Eugene: University of Oregon.
55.
Goswami, U., & Bryant, P. ( 1990). Phonological skills and learning to read. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
56.
Harcourt Assessment. (2004). Stanford English Language Proficiency Test. San Antonio, TX: Author.
57.
Hart, B., & Risley, T. ( 1992). American parenting of language-learning children: Persisting differences in family-child interactions observed in natural home environments . Developmental Psychology, 28, 1096-1105.
58.
Hart, B., & Risley, T. ( 1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks.
59.
Hintze, J., Ryan, A., & Stoner, G. ( 2003). Concurrent validity and diagnostic accuracy of the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills and the Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing. School Psychology Review, 32, 541-556.
60.
Holm, S. ( 1979). A simple sequentially rejective multiple test procedure . Scandinavian Journal of Statistics, 6, 65-70.
61.
Hulme, C., Snowling, M., Caravolas, M., & Carroll, J. ( 2005). Phonological skills are (probably) one cause of success in learning to read: A comment on Castles and Coltheart. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9, 351-365.
62.
Jackson, R., McCoy, A., Pistorino, C., Wilkinson, A., Burghardt, J., Clark, M., et al. (2007). National evaluation of early reading first (NCEE Rep. 2007-4007). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation.
63.
Jimenez, J., & Venegas, E. ( 2004). Defining phonological awareness and its relationship to reading skills in low-literacy adults. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 798-810.
64.
Jongejan, W., Verhoeven, L., & Siegel, L. ( 2007). Predictors of reading and spelling abilities in first- and second-language learners. Journal of Educational Psychology , 99, 835-851.
65.
Juel, C. ( 1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of 54 children from first through fourth grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 437-447.
66.
Juel, C. ( 1991). Beginning reading. In R. Barr, M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & P. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2, pp. 759-788). New York: Longman .
67.
Kindler, A. ( 2002). Survey of the States’ Limited English Proficient Students and Available Educational Programs and Services: 2000-2001 Summary report. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition and Language Instruction Educational Programs.
68.
Kozol, J. ( 1991). Savage inequalities: Children in America’s schools . New York: Crown.
69.
Kraus, P. ( 1973). Yesterday’s children. New York : Wiley.
70.
Kuhl, P. ( 2004). Early language acquisition: Cracking the speech code . Neuroscience, 5, 831-843.
71.
Kuo, L., & Anderson, R. ( 2006). Morphological awareness and learning to read: A cross-linguistic perspective. Educational Psychologist, 41, 161-180.
72.
Ladefoged, P. ( 2004). Vowels and consonants: An introduction to the sounds of language (2nd ed.). Oxford , UK: Blackwell.
73.
Lanfranchi, S., & Swanson, H. ( 2005). Short-term memory and working memory in children as a function of language-specific knowledge in English and Spanish. Learning and Individual Differences, 15, 299-319.
74.
Leafstedt, J., & Gerber, M. ( 2005). Crossover of phonological processing skills: A study of Spanish-speaking students in two instructional settings. Remedial and Special Education, 26, 226-235.
75.
Lenters, K. ( 2004). No half measures: Reading instruction for young second-language learners. Reading Teacher, 58, 328-336.
76.
Lesaux, N., Rupp, A., & Siegel, L. ( 2007). Growth in reading skills of children from diverse linguistic backgrounds: Findings from a 5-year longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 821-834.
77.
Liberman, I., & Shankweiler, D. (1979). Speech, the alphabet, and teaching to read. In L. Resnick & P. Weaver (Eds.), Theory and practice in early reading (Vol. 2, pp. 109-134). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
78.
Liberman, I., & Shankweiler, D. (1985). Phonology and the problems of learning to read and write. Remedial and Special Education , 6, 8-17.
79.
Lindsey, K., Manis, F., & Bailey, C. ( 2003). Prediction of first-grade reading in Spanish speaking English-language learners. Journal of Educational Psychology , 95, 482-494.
80.
Lipka, O., & Siegel, L. ( 2007). The development of reading skills in children with English as a second language. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11, 105-131.
81.
Lonigan, C., Burgess, S., & Anthony, J. ( 2000). Development of emergent literacy and early reading skills in preschool children: Evidence from a latent-variable longitudinal study . Developmental Psychology, 36, 596-613.
82.
Lonigan, C., Burgess, S., Anthony, J., & Barker, T. ( 1998). Development of phonological sensitivity in 2- to 5-year-old children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 294-311.
83.
Lopez, M., & Tashakkori, A. (2004). Narrowing the gap: Effects of a two-way bilingual program on the literacy development of students in kindergarten and first grade. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 9, 325-336.
84.
Lundberg, I., Frost, J., & Peterson, O. ( 1988). Effects of an extensive program for stimulating phonological awareness in preschool children. Reading Research Quarterly , 23, 263-284.
85.
Lyon, G. ( 1995). Toward a definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 45, 3-27.
86.
Manis, F., Lindsey, K., & Bailey, C. ( 2004). Development of reading in grades K-2 in Spanish-speaking English-language learners. Learning Disabilities: Research and Practice, 19, 214-224.
87.
Mattingly, I. ( 1972). Reading, the linguistic process, and linguistic awareness . In J. Kavanagh & I. Mattingly (Eds.), Language by ear and by eye: The relationship between speech and reading (pp.133-147). Cambridge: MIT Press.
88.
McBride-Chang, C. ( 1995). What is phonological awareness? Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 179-192.
89.
McBride-Chang, C., & Ho, C. ( 2005). Predictors of beginning reading in Chinese and English: A two-year longitudinal study of Chinese kindergarteners. Scientific Study of Reading, 9, 117-144.
90.
Meece, J., & Kurtz-Costes, B. (2001). Introduction: The schooling of ethnic minority children and youth. Educational Psychologist , 36, 1-8.
91.
Metsala, J. ( 1999). Young children’s phonological awareness and nonword repetition as a function of vocabulary development. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 3-19.
92.
Metsala, J., & Walley, A. ( 1998). Spoken vocabulary growth and the segmental restructuring of lexical representation: Precursors to phonemic awareness and early reading ability. In J. Metsala & L Ehri (Eds.), Word recognition in beginning literacy (pp. 89-120). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum .
93.
Mumtaz, S., & Humphreys, G. ( 2002). The effect of Urdu vocabulary size on the acquisition of single word reading in English. Educational Psychology , 22, 165-190.
94.
Naglieri, J. ( 2003). Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment.
95.
Naslund, J., & Schneider, W. ( 1996). Kindergarten letter knowledge, phonological skills, and memory processes: Relative effects on early literacy. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 62, 30-59.
96.
National Council of La Raza. (2006). Issue brief (No. 16). Washington, DC: Author.
97.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. ( 2000a). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00-4769). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
98.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. ( 2000b). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Reports of the subgroup (NIH Publication No. 00-4754). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
99.
Nelson, M. ( 2003). Assessing the early literacy skills of young English learners: Use of DIBELS in Spanish. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon, Eugene.
100.
Neuman, S., & Celano, D. ( 2006). The knowledge gap: Implications of leveling the playing field for low-income and middle income children. Reading Research Quarterly, 41, 176-201.
101.
NICHD Early Childhood Research Network. (2005 ). Pathways to reading: The role of oral language in the transition to reading. Developmental Psychology, 41, 428-442.
102.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. (2002). Pub. L. No. 107-110, 115 Stat. 1425.
103.
Ouellette, G. ( 2006). What’s meaning got to do with it: The role of vocabulary in word reading and comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 554-566.
104.
Patel, T., Snowling, M., & de Jong, P. ( 2004). A cross-linguistic comparison of children learning to read in English and Dutch. Journal of Educational Psychology , 96, 785-797.
105.
Peiñado, R. ( 2001). The effects of student, familial, and educational variables on the English reading achievement of Spanish-speaking first-grade limited English proficient students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon, Eugene.
106.
Perfetti, C., Beck, I., Bell, L., & Hughes, C. ( 1987). Phonemic knowledge and learning to read are reciprocal: A longitudinal study of first grade children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33, 283-319.
107.
Population Reference Bureau. (2006). 2006 World data sheet. Washington, DC: Author.
108.
Proctor, C., August, D., Carlo, M., & Snow, C. ( 2006). The intriguing role of Spanish language vocabulary knowledge in predicting English reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 159-169.
109.
Proctor, C., Carlo, M., August, D., & Snow, C. ( 2005). Native Spanish-speaking children reading in English: Toward a model of comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology , 97, 246-256.
110.
Quiroga, T., Lemos-Britton, Z., Mostafapour, E., Abbott, R., & Berninger, V. ( 2002). Phonological awareness and beginning readers in Spanish-speaking ESL first graders: Research into practice. Journal of School Psychology, 40, 85-111.
111.
Reed, M. ( 1989). Speech perception and the discrimination of brief auditory cues in reading disabled children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 48, 270-292.
112.
Roberts, T. ( 2005). Articulation accuracy and vocabulary size contributions to phonemic awareness and word reading in English language learners. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 601-616.
113.
Roberts, T., & Neal, H. ( 2003). Relationships among preschool English language learner’s oral proficiency in English, instructional experience and literacy development . Contemporary Educational Psychology, 29, 283-311.
114.
Rolla San Francisco, A., Carlo, M., August, D., & Snow, C. ( 2006). The role of language of instruction and vocabulary in the English phonological awareness of Spanish-English bilingual children. Applied Psycholinguistics, 27, 229-246.
115.
Rosner, J. ( 1975). Helping children overcome learning difficulties. New York: Walker.
116.
Rosnow, R., & Rosenthal, R. ( 1996). Computing contrasts, effect sizes, and counternulls on other people’s published data: General procedures for research consumers . Psychological Methods, 1, 331-340.
117.
Saracho, O. ( 2007). Hispanic families as facilitators of their children’s literacy development. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education , 6, 103-117.
118.
Saunders, W., Foorman, B., & Carlson, C. ( 2006). Is a separate block of time for oral English language development in programs for English learners needed? Elementary School Journal, 107, 181-198.
119.
Schatschneider, C., Francis, D., Carlson, C., Fletcher, J., & Foorman, B. ( 2004). Kindergarten prediction of reading skills: A longitudinal comparative analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 265-282.
120.
Schatschneider, C., Francis, D., Foorman, B., & Fletcher, J. ( 1999). The dimensionality of phonological awareness: An application of item response theory. Journal of Educational Psychology , 91, 439-449.
121.
Schorr, L. ( 1988). Within our reach: Breaking the cycle of disadvantage . New York: Doubleday.
122.
Schulte, A., Osborne, S., & Erchul, W. ( 1998). Effective special education: A United States dilemma . School Psychology Review, 27, 66-76.
123.
Share, D., & Stanovich, K. ( 1995). Cognitive processes in early reading development: Accommodating individual differences into a model of acquisition. Issues in Education: Contributions from Educational Psychology, 1, 1-57.
124.
Shaywitz, S. ( 2003). Overcoming dyslexia. New York: Knopf.
125.
Siegel, L., & Ryan, E. ( 1989). The development of working memory in normally achieving and subtypes of learning disabled children. Child Development , 60, 973-980.
126.
Silven, M., Poskiparta, E., Niemi, P., & Voeten, M. ( 2007). Precursors of reading skill from infancy to first grade in Finnish: Continuity and change in a highly inflected language. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 516-531.
127.
Slavin, R., & Cheung, A. ( 2005). A synthesis of research on language of reading instruction for English language learners. Review of Educational Research , 75, 247-284.
128.
Snow, C., Burns, M., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children . Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
129.
Snowling, M. ( 1996). Contemporary approaches to the teaching of reading. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 86, 221-234.
130.
Snowling, M. ( 2005). Literacy outcomes for children with oral language impairments: Developmental interactions between language skills and learning to read. In H. Catts & A. Kamhi (Eds.), The connection between language and reading disabilities (pp. 55-75). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum .
131.
Speece, D., Roth, F., Cooper, D., & de la Paz, S. ( 1999). The relevance of oral language skills to early literacy: A multivariate analysis. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20, 167-190.
132.
Stahl, S., & Murray, B. ( 1994). Defining phonological awareness and its relationship to early reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 221-234.
133.
Stanovich, K. ( 1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360-407.
134.
Storch, S., & Whitehurst, G. (2002). Oral language and code-related precursors to reading: Evidence from a longitudinal structural model. Developmental Psychology, 38, 934-947.
135.
Swanson, H., Sáez, L., & Gerber, G. ( 2004). Do phonological and executive processes in English learners at risk for reading disabilities in grade 1 predict performance in grade 2 ? Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 19, 225-238.
136.
Swanson, H., Sáez, L., & Gerber, G. ( 2006). Growth in literacy and cognition in bilingual children at risk or not at risk for reading disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 247-264.
137.
Swanson, H., Sáez, L., Gerber, G., & Leafstedt, J. ( 2004). Literacy and cognitive functioning in bilingual and non-bilingual children at or not at risk for reading disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 3-18.
138.
Tannenbaum, K., Torgesen, J., & Wagner, R. ( 2006). Relationships between word knowledge and reading comprehension in third-grade children. Scientific Study of Reading, 10, 381-398.
139.
Thomas, W., & Collier, V. ( 1997). School effectiveness for language minority students. Washington, DC: George Washington University, National Clearinghouse of Bilingual Education.
140.
Torgesen, J. ( 2004). Lessons learned from the last 20 years of research on interventions for students who experience difficulty learning to read. In P. McCardle & V. Chhabra (Eds.), The voice of evidence in reading research (pp. 355-382). Baltimore: Brookes.
141.
Torgesen, J., Morgan, S., & Davis, C. ( 1992) Effects of two types of phonological awareness training on word learning in kindergarten. Journal of Educational Psychology , 84, 364-370.
142.
Uchikoshi, Y. ( 2006). English vocabulary development in bilingual kindergarteners: What are the best predictors? Bilingualism, Language and Cognition , 9, 33-49.
United Nations Population Fund. (2006). State of the world population 2006. New York: Author.
145.
U.S. Department of Education. (2005). The nation’s report card: Reading 2005 (NCES 2006-451). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Educational Sciences.
146.
Vaughn, S., Cirino, P., Linan-Thompson, S., Mathes, P., Carlson, C., Hagan, E., et al. (2006). Effectiveness of a Spanish intervention and an English intervention for English language learners at risk for reading problems. American Educational Research Journal, 43, 449-487.
147.
Vellutino, F., Fletcher, J., Snowling, M., & Scanlon, D. ( 2004). Specific reading disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 2-40.
148.
Vellutino, F., Tunmer, W., Jaccard, J., & Chen, R. ( 2007). Components of reading ability: Multivariate evidence for a convergent skills model of reading development. Scientific Study of Reading, 11, 3-32.
149.
Verhoeven, L. ( 1994). Transfer in bilingual development: The linguistic interdependence hypothesis revisited. Language Learning, 44, 381-415.
150.
Wagner, R., & Torgesen, J. ( 1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin , 101, 192-212.
151.
Wagner, R., Torgesen, J., & Rashotte, C. ( 1994). Development of reading-related phonological processing abilities: New evidence of bilingual causality from a latent variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 30, 73-87.
152.
Wagner, R., Torgesen, J., Rashotte, C., Hecht, S., Barker, T., Burgess, S., et al. (1997). Changing relations between phonological processing abilities and word-level reading as children develop from beginning to skilled readers: A 5-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 33, 468-479.
153.
Wang, M., Park, Y., & Lee, K. ( 2006). Korean-English biliteracy acquisition: Cross-language phonological and orthographic transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 148-158.
