Laboratory Decontamination of HHS-Listed and HHS/USDA Overlap Select Agents and Toxins

Abstract

This review describes the susceptibilities of all currently HHS-listed and HHS/USDA Overlap select agents and toxins to 8 chemical and 2 physical decontaminants: alcohols, aldehydes, bleach/hypochlorite, iodine, peroxides, phenolics, quaternary ammonium compounds, strong base, dry heat, and steam autoclaving. Inactivation protocols from the literature are presented to facilitate decontamination and the validation of decontamination in basic research and biodefense laboratories. These strategies provide a measure of public confidence that every select agent and toxin on surfaces or in solution can be rendered biologically inactive with easily managed procedures.

References

Abcam. (2012). Safety data sheet for ω-conotoxin GVIA, version 1. Available at: www.abcam.com/ps/Products/120/ab120215/Msds/ab120215_WPNA_EN.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

Alphin

R. L.

, Johnson

K. J.

, Ladman

B. S.

, Benson

E. R.

(2009). Inactivation of avian influenza virus using four common chemicals and one detergent. Poultry Science, 88, 1181–1185.

Anaspec, Inc. (2012). Materials safety data sheet for conotoxin and related peptides. Version 1.1. Available at: www.anaspec.com/products/product.asp?id=30980. Accessed online 2013.

Block

S. S.

(2001). Disinfection, sterilization and preservation (5th ed.). Riverwoods, IL: Lipincott-William & Wilkins.

Borick

P. M.

(1968). Chemical sterilizers (chemosterilizers). Advances in Applied Microbiology, 10, 291–312.

Brown

S. A. D.

, Merritt

(2003). Use of containment pans and lids for autoclaving caustic solutions. American Journal of Infection Control, 31, 257–260.

Bruch

M. K.

(2007). Toxicity and safety of topical sodium hypochlorite. In Ronco

, Mishkin

G. J.

(Eds.), Disinfection by sodium hypochlorite: Dialysis applications. Contributions to nephrology (vol. 154, pp. 24–38). Basel, Switzerland: Karger.

Byrne

A. F.

, Rayman

M. M.

, Schneider

M. D.

(1955). Methods for the detection and estimation of numbers of salmonella in dried eggs and other food products. Applied Microbiology, 3, 368–372.

Calfee

M. W.

, Wendling

(2013). Inactivation of vegetative bacterial threat agents on environmental surfaces. Science of the Total Environment, 443, 387–396.

10.

Cazzaniga

, Basilico

J. C.

, Gonzalez

R. J.

, Torres

R. L.

, de Greef

D. M.

(2001). Mycotoxins inactivation by extrusion cooking of corn flour. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 33, 144–147.

11.

CBWInfo. (1999). Conotoxins: Essential data. CBWInfo collection of factsheets on biological and chemical warfare agents. Available at: www.cbwinfo.com/Biological/Toxins/Conotox.html. Accessed online 2013.

12.

Center for Food Security and Public Health. (2008). Eastern equine encephalomyelitis, Western equine encephalomyelitis and Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis, Iowa State University, Document EWVE_H2008. Available at: www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/easter_wester_venezuelan_equine_encephalomyelitis.pd. Accessed online 2013.

13.

Center for Food Security and Public Health. (2009a). Hendra virus infection: Equine morbillivirus pneumonia, acute equine respiratory syndrome. Iowa State University, Document HEND_H2009. Available at: www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/hendra.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

14.

Center for Food Security and Public Health. (2009b). Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Ebola and Marburg. Iowa State University, Document VHFF_H2009. Available at: www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/viral_hemorrhagic_fever_filovirus.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

15.

Center for Food Security and Public Health. (2010). Viral hemorrhagic fevers caused by arenaviruses. Iowa State University, Document VHFA_H2010. Available at: www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/viral_hemorrhagic_fever_arenavirus.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

16.

Center for Food Security and Public Health. (2011). Disease briefs: Nipah. Iowa State University, Document NIPA_H2007. Available at: www.cfsph.iastate.edu/Factsheets/pdfs/nipah.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

17.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). CDC smallpox response plan and guidelines. Draft 3.0–9/21/02. Guide F. Environmental control of smallpox virus. Available at: www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/smallpox/response-plan/index.asp#guidef. Accessed online 2013.

18.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2003). Guidelines for infection control in dental health-care settings—2003. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 52(No. RR-17), 62–66.

19.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2005a). CDC health update: Instructions for monitoring health of laboratory workers and for destroying influenza A (H2N2) samples. Available at: http://emergency.cdc.gov/HAN/han00228.asp. Accessed online 2013.

20.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2005b). Compendium of measures to prevent disease associated with animals in public settings. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 54(No. RR-4), 13.

21.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). Acute antimicrobial pesticide-related illnesses among workers in health-care facilities—California, Louisiana, Michigan, and Texas, 2002–2007. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 59(18), 551–556.

22.

Chi

M. S.

, Robison

T. S.

, Mirocha

C. J.

, Reddy

K. R.

(1978). Acute toxicity of 12,13-epoxytrichothecenes in one-day-old broiler chickens. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 35, 636–640.

23.

Collins

C. H.

, Kennedy

D. A.

(1999). Laboratory acquired infections: History, incidence, causes and prevention (4th ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

24.

Darnell

M. E.

, Subbarao

, Feinstone

S. M.

, Taylor

D. R.

(2004). Inactivation of the coronavirus that induces severe acute respiratory syndrome, SARS-CoV. Journal of Virological Methods, 121, 85–91.

25.

Dennis

D. T.

, Inglesby

T. V.

, Henderson

D. A.

, Bartlett

J. G.

, Ascher

M. S.

, Eitzen

(2001). Tularemia as a biological weapon: Medical and public health management. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285, 2763–2773.

26.

Department of Health, Scottish Executive, Department of Health, Social Services. (2000). Public safety—Northern Ireland, National Assembly for Wales. Hendra virus and Nipah virus: Management and control. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/DH_4010423. Accessed online 2013.

27.

Dumpis

, Crook

, Oksi

(1999). Tick-borne encephalitis. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 28, 882–890.

28.

Environmental Protection Agency. (2009; updated 2012). Guidance for testing and labeling claims against pandemic 2009 H1N1 influenza A virus (formerly called swine flu). Available at: www.epa.gov/oppad001/h1n1-guide.html. Accessed online 2013.

29.

Environmental Protection Agency. (2012). Selected EPA-registered disinfectants: EPA's registered sterilizers, tuberculocides, and antimicrobial products against certain human public health bacteria and viruses. Available at: www.epa.gov/oppad001/chemregindex.html. Accessed online 2013.

30.

Eremeeva

M. E.

, Ignatovich

V. F.

, Popov

V. L.

, Balaeva

N. M.

(1989). Inactivation of concentrated biomasses of Rickettsia prowazekii. Zhurnal Mikrobiologii, Epidemiologii, I immunobiologii, 7, 12–17.

31.

Faifer

G. C.

, Velazco

, Godoy

H. M.

(1994). Adjustment of the conditions required for complete decontamination of T-2 toxin residues with alkaline sodium hypochlorite. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 52, 102–108.

32.

Fielding

G. H.

(1989). Decontamination of agents of biological origin: A potential shipboard system. In Proceedings for the Symposium on Agents of Biological Origin (pp. 79–85). Laurel, MD.

33.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Animal Production and Health Commission for Asia and the Pacific (APHCA). (2002). Manual on the diagnosis of Nipah virus infection in animals. RAP publication no. 2002/01. Available at: ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/ah690e/ah690e00.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

34.

Foshay

(1950). Tularemia. Annual Review of Microbiology, 4, 313–330.

35.

Franz

D. R.

, Jahrling

P. B.

, Friedlander

A. M.

, McClain

D. J.

, Hoover

D. L.

, Bryne

W. R.

(1997). Clinical recognition and management of patients exposed to biological warfare agents. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278, 399–411.

36.

Fung

D. Y.

, Steinberg

D. H.

, Miller

R. D.

, Kurantnick

M. J.

, Murphy

T. F.

(1973). Thermal inactivation of staphylococcal enterotoxins B and C. Applied Microbiology, 26, 938–942.

37.

Geering

W. A.

, Penrith

M-L.

, Nyakahuma

(2001). Manual on procedures for disease eradication by stamping out, FAO Animal Health Manual 12. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Corporate Document Repository. Available at: www.fao.org/docrep/004/Y0660E/Y0660E00.HTM#TOC. Accessed online 2013.

38.

Gregory

B. C.

, Waag

D. M.

(2007). Glanders. In Dembek

Z. F.

(Ed.). Medical aspects of biological warfare (pp. 121–146). Washington, DC: Office of Surgeon General. ( Lounsbury

D. E.

(Ed.), Textbooks of Military Medicine). Available at: https://ke.army.mil/bordeninstitute/published_volumes/biological_warfare/BW-ch06.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

39.

Gritsun

T. S.

, Lashkevich

V. A.

, Gould

E. A.

(2003). Tick-borne encephalitis. Antiviral Research, 57, 129–146.

40.

Hawkins

C. L.

, Pattison

D. I.

, Davies

M. J.

(2003). Hypochlorite-induced oxidation of amino acids, peptides and proteins. Amino Acids, 25, 259–274.

41.

Hilgren

J. K.

, Swanson

M. J.

, Diez-Gonzalez

, Cords

(2007). Inactivation of Bacillus anthracis spores by liquid biocides in the presence of food residue. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 73, 6370–6377.

42.

Hirs

C. H.

, Stein

W. H.

, Moore

(1956). Peptides obtained by chymotryptic hydrolysis of performic acid-oxidized ribonuclease: A partial structural formula for the oxidized protein. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 221, 151–169.

43.

Howard

, Inglis

T. J.

(2005). Disinfection of Burkholderia pseudomallei in potable water. Water Research, 39, 1085–1092.

44.

Huebner

K. D.

, Wannemacher

R. W.

Jr. , Stiles

B. G.

, Popoff

M. R.

, Poli

M. A.

(2007). Additional toxins of clinical concern. In Dembek

Z. F.

(Ed.), Medical aspects of biological warfare (pp. 355–389). Washington, DC: Office of Surgeon General. ( Lounsbury

D. E.

(Ed.), Textbooks of Military Medicine). Available at: https://ke.army.mil/bordeninstitute/published_volumes/biological_warfare/BW-ch17.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

45.

Hulkower

R. L.

, Casanova

L. M.

, Rutala

W. A.

, Weber

D. J.

, Sobsey

M. D.

(2011). Inactivation of surrogate coronaviruses on hard surfaces by health care germicides. American Journal of Infection Control, 39, 401–407.

46.

Humphreys

P. N.

(2011). Testing standards for sporicides. Journal of Hospital Infection, 77, 193–198.

47.

Jahrling

P. B.

, Marty

A. M.

, Geisbert

T. W.

(2007). Viral hemorrhagic fevers. In Dembek

Z. F.

(Ed.), Medical aspects of biological warfare (pp. 271–310). Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General. ( Lounsbury

D. E.

(Ed.), Textbooks of Military Medicine). Available at: https://ke.army.mil/bordeninstitute/published_volumes/biological_warfare/BW-ch13.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

48.

Jemmali

(1979). Decontamination and detoxification of mycotoxins. Pure and Applied Chemistry, 52, 175–181.

49.

Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. (2001). Evaluation of certain mycotoxins in food: Fifty-Sixth report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Geneva, Switzerland. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_906.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

50.

Jones

R. D.

, Jampani

H. B.

, Newman

J. L.

, Lee

A. S.

(2000). Triclosan: A review of effectiveness and safety in healthcare settings. American Journal of Infection Control, 28, 184–196.

51.

Keller

J. E.

(2008). Characterization of new formalin-detoxified botulinum neurotoxin toxoids. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology, 15, 1374–1379.

52.

Kelsey

J. C.

, MacKinnon

I. H.

, Maurer

I. M.

(1974). Sporicidal activity of hospital disinfectants. Journal of Clinical Pathology, 27, 632–638.

53.

Lai

M. Y.

, Cheng

P. K.

, Lim

W. W.

(2005). Survival of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 41, e67–e71.

54.

Lantagne

D. S.

(2009). Viability of commercially available bleach for water treatment in developing countries. American Journal of Public Health, 99, 1975–1978.

55.

Lloyd

, Perry

(1998). Infection control for viral haemorrhagic fevers in the African health care setting. CDC/WHO publications. Available at: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/spb/pdf/african-healthcare-setting-vhf.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

56.

Lloyd

, Bowen

E. T.

, Slade

J. H.

(1982). Physical and chemical methods of inactivating Lassa virus. Lancet, 1(8280), 1046–1048.

57.

MacKinnon

I. H.

(1974). The use of inactivators in the evaluation of disinfectants. Journal of Hygiene (Cambridge), 73, 189–195.

58.

Maurin

, Raoult

(1999). Q fever. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 12, 518–553.

59.

Miller

W. R.

, Pannell

, Cravitz

, Tanner

W. A.

, Ingalls

M. S.

(1948). Studies on certain biological characteristics of Malleomyces mallei and Malleomyces pseudomallei. I. Morphology, cultivation, viability and isolation from contaminated specimens. Journal of Bacteriology, 55, 115–126.

60.

Murphy

P. A.

, Hendrich

, Landgren

, Bryant

C. M.

(2006). Food mycotoxins: An update. Journal of Food Science, 71, R51–R65.

61.

National Select Agent Registry. Available at: www.selectagents.gov. Accessed online 2013.

62.

Nightingale

Z. D.

, Lancha

A. H.

Jr. , Handelman

S. K.

, Dolnikowski

G. G.

, Busse

S. C.

, Dratz

E. A.

(2000). Relative reactivity of lysine and other peptide-bound amino acids to oxidation by hypochlorite. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 29, 425–433.

63.

O'Connell

H. A.

, Rose

L. J.

, Shams

, Bradley

, Arduino

M. J.

, Rice

E. W.

(2009). Variability of Burkholderia pseudomallei strain sensitivities to chlorine disinfection. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 75, 5405–5409.

64.

Octagon Process Inc. Mil-D-12468 decontaminating agent, STB. 6850-00-297-6653. Updated 1987 Jan 1. Available at: http://siri.org/msds/f2/bdw/bdwhh.html. Accessed online 2013.

65.

Ormsbee

R. A.

(1969). Rickettsiae (as organisms). Annual Review of Microbiology, 23, 275–292.

66.

Ostrander

W. E.

, Griffith

L. J.

(1964). Evaluation of disinfectants for hospital housekeeping use. Applied Microbiology, 12, 460–463.

67.

Public Health Agency of Canada. (2001). Materials data safety sheet-Infectious substances: Yersinia pestis. Office of Laboratory Security. Available at: www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/lab-bio/res/psds-ftss/msds169e-eng.php. Accessed online 2013.

68.

Queensland Government. (2011). Guidelines for veterinarians handling potential hendra virus infection in horses. Version 4.2. Available at: www.daff.qld.gov.au/4790_13371.htm. Accessed online 2013.

69.

Rabenau

H. F.

, Cinatl

, Morgenstern

, Bauer

, Preiser

, Doerr

H. W.

(2002). Stability and inactivation of SARS coronavirus. Medical Microbiology and Immunology, 194, 1–6.

70.

Ranson

S. E.

, Huebner

R. J.

(1951). Studies on the resistance of Coxiella burnetii to physical and chemical agents. American Journal of Hygiene, 53, 110–119.

71.

Rose

L. J.

, Rice

E. W.

, Jensen

, Murga

, Peterson

, Donlan

R. M.

(2005). Chlorine inactivation of bacterial bioterrorism agents. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 71, 566–568.

72.

Rosenblum

, Leikin

J. B.

, Vogel

S. N.

, Chaudry

Z. A.

(2002). Biological and chemical agents: A brief synopsis. American Journal of Therapeutics, 9, 5–14.

73.

Roy

C. J.

, Reed

D. S.

, Hutt

J. A.

(2010). Aerobiology and inhalation exposure to biological select agents and toxins. Veterinary Pathology, 47, 779–789.

74.

Roxas-Duncan

V. I.

, Smith

L. A.

(2012). Of beans and beads: Ricin and abrin in bioterrorism and biocrime. Journal of Bioterrorism and Biodefense, S7, 002.

75.

Russell

A. D.

(1990). Bacterial spores and chemical sporicidal agents. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 3, 99–119.

76.

Rutala

W. A.

, Cole

E. C.

(1987). Ineffectiveness of hospital disinfectants against bacteria: A collaborative study. Infection Control, 8, 501–506.

77.

Rutala, W. A., Weber, D. L., & The Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. (2008). CDC guideline for disinfection and sterilization in healthcare facilities. Available at: www.cdc.gov/hicpac/pdf/guidelines/Disinfection_Nov_2008.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

78.

Sagripanti

J-L.

, Bonifacino

(1999). Bacterial spores survive treatment with commercial sterilants and disinfectants. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 65(9), 4255–4260.

79.

Sagripanti

J-L.

, Hulseweh

, Grote

, Voss

, Bohling

, Marschall

H-J.

(2011). Microbial inactivation for safe and rapid diagnostics of infectious samples. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 77, 7289–7295.

80.

Scott

G. H.

, Williams

J. C.

(1990). Susceptibility of Coxiella burnetii to chemical disinfectants. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 590, 291–296.

81.

Shams

, Mitterbauer

, Corradini

, Wiesenberger

, Dall'Asta

, Schuhmacher

(2011). Isolation and characterization of a new less-toxic derivative of the Fusarium mycotoxin diacetoxyscirpenol after thermal treatment. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 59, 9709–9714.

82.

Sigma-Aldrich . (2012). Materials safety data sheet for ω-Conotoxin MVIIC. Version 5.0. Revision date 09/21/2012. Available at: www.sigmaaldrich.com/MSDS/MSDS/DisplayMSDSPage.do?country=US&language=en&productNumber=C4188&brand=SIGMA&PageToGoToURL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sigmaaldrich.com%2Fcatalog%2Fproduct%2Fsigma%2Fc4188%3Flang%3Den. Accessed online 2013.

83.

Sykes

(1970). Symposium on Bacterial Spores: XII. The sporicidal properties of chemical disinfectants. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 33, 147–156.

84.

Taylor

D. M.

(1999). Inactivation of prions by physical and chemical methods. Journal of Hospital Infection, 43, S69–S76.

85.

Tocris Biosciences. (2011). Safety data sheet for w-conotoxin MII, CAS number 175735-93-0. Version 2.0 SDS Revision Date: December 16, 2011. Available at: www.tocris.com/literature/1340_sds.pdf?1358867954. Accessed online 2013.

86.

Tolleson

W. H.

, Jackson

L. S.

, Triplett

O. A.

, Aluri

, Cappozzo

, Banaszewski

(2012). Chemical inactivation of protein toxins on food contact surfaces. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 60, 6627–6640.

87.

U.S. Army. (1990). Army field manual no. 3–9: Potential military chemical/biological agents and compounds. U.S. Government Publications. Available at: www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/policy/army/fm/3-9/fm3-9.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

88.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, & National Institutes of Health. (2009). Chosewood

L. C.

, Wilson

D. E.

(Eds.), Biosafety in microbiological and biomedical laboratories. (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Available at: www.cdc.gov/od/ohs/biosfty/bmbl5/bmbl5toc.htm. Accessed online 2013.

89.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2005). HHS Pandemic Influenza Plan. Available at: www.flu.gov/planning-preparedness/federal/hhspandemicinfluenzaplan.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

90.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2011). Guidance for industry: Process validation: General principles and practices. Available at: www.fda.gov/RegulatoryInformation/Guidances/default.htm. Accessed online 2013.

91.

USAMRIID. (2011). Medical management of biological casualties handbook (7th ed.). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Available at: www.usamriid.army.mil/education/bluebookpdf/USAMRIID%20BlueBook%207th%20Edition%20-%20Sep%202011.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

92.

Vischer

W. A.

, Regos

(1974). Antimicrobial spectrum of triclosan, a broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent for topical application. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene. Erste Abteilung Originale. Reihe A: Medizinische Mikrobiologie und Parasitologie, 226, 376–389.

93.

Waag

D. M.

(2007). Q fever. In Dembek

Z. F.

(Ed.), Medical aspects of biological warfare (pp. 199–213). Washington, DC: Office of Surgeon General. ( Lounsbury

D. E.

(Ed.), Textbooks of Military Medicine). Available at: https://ke.army.mil/bordeninstitute/published_volumes/biological_warfare/BW-ch10.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

94.

Wade

M. M.

, Chambers

A. E.

, Insalaco

J. M.

, Zulich

A. W.

(2010). Survival of viral biowarfare agents in disinfected waters. International Journal of Microbiology, 2010 (Article ID 412694), 1–4.

95.

Wannemacher

R. W.

Jr. , Bunner

D. L.

, Dinterman

R. E.

(1989). Inactivation of low molecular weight agents of biological origins. In Proceedings for the Symposium on Agents of Biological Origin (pp. 115–122). Laurel, MD.

96.

Warner

J. S.

(1990). Review of reactions of biotoxins in water (CBIAC task 152). U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command. Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD. MIPR No. 90MM0530.

97.

Weber

D. J.

, Rutala

W. A.

, Sickbert-Bennett

E. E.

(2007). Outbreaks associated with contaminated antiseptics and disinfectants. Antimicrobial Agents & Chemotherapy, 51, 4217–4224.

98.

Whitney

E. A. S.

, Beatty

M. E.

, Taylor

T. H.

Jr. , Weyant

, Sobel

, Arduino

M. J.

(2003). Inactivation of Bacillus anthracis spores. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 9(6). Available at: http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/9/6/02–0377.htm. Accessed online 2013.

99.

World Health Organization (WHO). (2004). Public health response to biological and chemical weapons: WHO guidance (2nd ed.). Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/9241546158.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

100.

World Health Organization (WHO). (2006). Brucellosis in humans and animals. WHO Press Publication WHO/CDS/EPR/2006.7. Available at: www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/Brucellosis.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

101.

World Organization for Animal Health. (2009). Technical disease cards. Venezuelan equine encephalitis, OIE Scientific and Technical Department. Available at: www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/Animal_Health_in_the_World/docs/pdf/VEE_FINAL.pdf. Accessed online 2013.

102.

Wuthiekanun

, Wongsuwan

, Pangmee

, Teerawattanasook

, Day

N. P.

, Peacock

S. J.

(2011). Perasafe, virkon and bleach are bactericidal for Burkholderia pseudomallei, a select agent and the cause of melioidosis. Journal of Hospital Infection, 77(2), 169–185.