The aim of this study was to investigate the endocrine response to wintertime starvation in the male American mink (Mustela vison) fasted for 16 hrs, 2 days, 3 days, 5 days, or 7 days (n–10 per group). After 2 days of fasting, the plasma leptin concentrations decreased, along with the triiodothyronine, testosterone, and progesterone levels, and the blood monocyte counts. Leptin also seems to trigger the response to fasting in mustelids by inducing immunosuppression and downregulation of the reproductive and thyroid axes. The dramatic increase in the peptide YY concentrations after 3 days of fasting may be required to suppress gastrointestinal processes during food scarcity. The plasma insulin levels decreased, and those of glucagon increased after 5 days of fasting in association with efficient glucose sparing and lipid mobilization. Body energy stores cannot be wasted for growth during nutritional scarcity and, thus, the growth hormone levels of the minks decreased after 5 days of fasting. The plasma noradrenaline and cortisol concentrations also decreased after 3 and 7 days without food, respectively. The plasma ghrelin, adiponectin, resistin, thyroxine, adrenaline, or estradiol levels did not respond to fasting. The endocrine response to food deprivation is remarkably similar in divergent mammalian orders, indicating that the hormonal signals enhancing survival during nutritional scarcity must be evolutionarily old and well conserved.
MarshallWH. A study of the winter activities of the mink. J Mammal17: 382–392, 1936.
3.
MustonenA-M, PyykönenT, PaakkonenT, RyökkynenA, AsikainenJ, AhoJ, MononenJ, NieminenP.Adaptations to fasting in the American mink (Mustela vison): carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Comp Biochem Physiol140A:195–202, 2005.
4.
BjornvadCR, ElnifJ, SangildPT. Short-term fasting induces intrahepatic lipid accumulation and decreases intestinal mass without reduced brush-border enzyme activity in mink (Mustela vison) small intestine. J Comp Physiol B174: 625–632, 2004.
5.
FinkR, TausonA-H, ForsbergM.Influence of different planes of energy supply prior to the breeding season on blood metabolites in female mink (Mustela vison).Reprod Nutr Dev38:107–116, 1998.
6.
B⊘rstingCF, GadeA.Glucose homeostasis in mink (Mustela vison), a review based on interspecies comparisons. Scientifur24: 9–18, 2000.
Council of the European Union. Council Directive 93/119/EC of 22 December 1993 on the Protection of Animals at the Time of Slaughter or Killing. Luxembourg: Office of Official Publications of the European Communities, 1993.
9.
RyökkynenA, MustonenA-M, PyykönenT, HänninenS, AsikainenJ, KukkonenJVK, MononenJ, NieminenP.Detection, analysis and interactions of plasma ghrelin, leptin and growth hormone in the mink (Mustela vison).Zoolog Sci20:1127–1132, 2003.
10.
BrownJH, LasiewskiRC. Metabolism of weasels: the cost of being long and thin. Ecology53: 939–943, 1972.
11.
IversenJA. Basal energy metabolism of mustelids. J Comp Physiol81: 341–344, 1972.
12.
GilbertFF, GoftonN.Heart rate values for beaver, mink and muskrat. Comp Biochem Physiol73A:249–251, 1982.
13.
MustonenA-M, PuukkaM, PyykönenT, NieminenP.Adaptations to fasting in the American mink (Mustela vison): nitrogen metabolism. J Comp Physiol B175: 357–363, 2005.
14.
HardieU, RaynerDV, HolmesS, TrayhurnP.Circulating leptin levels are modulated by fasting, cold exposure and insulin administration in lean but not Zucker (fa/fa) rats as measured by ELISA. Biochem Biophys Res Commun223: 660–665, 1996.
15.
SchneiderJE, BlumRM, WadeGN. Metabolic control of food intake and estrous cycles in Syrian hamsters. I. Plasma insulin and leptin. Am J Physiol278:R476–485, 2000.
16.
OrtizRM, WadeCE, OrtizCL. Effects of prolonged fasting on plasma Cortisol and TH in postweaned northern elephant seal pups. Am J Physiol280:R790–795, 2001.
17.
NieminenP, MustonenA-M, AsikainenJ, HyvärinenH.Seasonal weight regulation of the raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides): Interactions between melatonin, leptin, ghrelin, and growth hormone. J Biol Rhythms17: 155–163, 2002.
18.
FugleiE, MustonenA-M, NieminenP.Effects of season, food deprivation and re-feeding on leptin, ghrelin and growth hormone in arctic foxes (Alopex lagopus) on Svalbard, Norway. J Comp Physiol B174: 157–162, 2004.
19.
AhimaRS, PrabakaranD, MantzorosC, QuD, LowellB, Maratos-FlierE, FlierJS. Role of leptin in the neuroendocrine response to fasting. Nature382: 250–252, 1996.
20.
LordGM, MatareseG, HowardJK, BakerRJ, BloomSR, LechlerRI. Leptin modulates the T-cell immune response and reverses starvation-induced immunosuppression. Nature394: 897–901, 1998.
21.
FlierJS. What's in a name? In search of leptin's physiologic role. J Clin Endocrinol Metab83: 1407–1413, 1998.
22.
RossettiL, MassillonD, BarzilaiN, VuguinP, ChenW, HawkinsM, WuJ, WangJ.Short term effects of leptin on hepatic gluconeogenesis and in vivo insulin action. J Biol Chem272: 27758–27763, 1997.
23.
CeddiaRB, WilliamWNJr., CuriR.Comparing effects of leptin and insulin on glucose metabolism in skeletal muscle: evidence for an effect of leptin on glucose uptake and decarboxylation. Int J Obes23: 75–82, 1999.
24.
TausonA-H, ForsbergM.Body-weight changes are clearly reflected in plasma concentrations of leptin in female mink (Mustela vison).Br J Nutr87:101–105, 2002.
25.
TausonA-H, ForsbergM, ChwalibogA.Plasma concentrations of leptin mirror changes in body weight but do not influence the pattern of the preovulatory luteinizing hormone surge in mink (Mustela vison).J Nutr132:1790S–1792S, 2002.
26.
TausonA-H, ForsbergM, ChwalibogA.High leptin in pregnant mink (Mustela vison) may exert anorexigenic effects: a permissive factor for rapid increase in food intake during lactation. Br J Nutr91: 411–421, 2004.
27.
NieminenP, HyvärinenH, KäkeläR, AsikainenJ.Plasma leptin and thyroxine of mink (Mustela vison) vary with gender, diet and subchronic exposure to PCBs. Comp Biochem Physiol127A:515–522, 2000.
28.
GreeleyGHJr., HashimotoT, IzukuraM, GomezG, JengJ, HillFLC, LluisF, ThompsonJC. A comparison of intraduodenally and intracolonically administered nutrients on the release of peptide–YY in the dog. Endocrinology125: 1761–1765, 1989.
29.
BeerSF, BirchamPMM, BloomSR, ClarkPM, HalesCN, HughesCM, JonesCT, MarshDR, RaggattPR, FindlayALR. The effect of a 72-h fast on plasma levels of pituitary, adrenal, thyroid, pancreatic and gastrointestinal hormones in healthy men and women. J Endocrinol120: 337–350, 1989.
30.
MustonenA-M, PyykönenT, NieminenP.Adiponectin and peptide YY in the fasting blue fox (Alopex lagopus).Comp Biochem Physiol140A:251–256, 2005.
31.
LundbergJM, TatemotoK, TereniusL, HellströmPM, MuttV, HökfeltT, HambergerB.Localization of peptide YY (PYY) in gastrointestinal endocrine cells and effects on intestinal blood flow and motility. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A79: 4471–4475, 1982.
32.
GuoY-S, FujimuraM, LluisF, TsongY, GreeleyGHJr., ThompsonJC. Inhibitory action of peptide YY on gastric acid secretion. Am J Physiol253:G298–302, 1987.
33.
GreeleyGHJr., LluisF, GomezG, IshizukaJ, HollandB, ThompsonJC. Peptide YY antagonizes ß-adrenergic-stimulated release of insulin in dogs. Am J Physiol254:E513–517, 1988.
34.
JinH, CaiL, LeeK, ChangT-M, LiP, WagnerD, CheyWY. A physiological role of peptide YY on exocrine pancreatic secretion in rats. Gastroenterology105: 208–215, 1993.
de BruijneJJ, AltszulerN, HampshireJ, VisserTJ, HackengWHL. Fal mobilization and plasma hormone levels in fasted dogs. Metabolism30: 190–194, 1981.
38.
DelGiudiceGD, SealUS, MechLD. Effects of feeding and fasting on wolf blood and urine characteristics. J Wildl Manage51: 1–10, 1987.
39.
MustonenA-M, NieminenP, PuukkaM, AsikainenJ, SaarelaS, KaronenS-L, KukkonenJVK, HyvärinenH.Physiological adaptations of the raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) to seasonal fasting-fat and nitrogen metabolism and influence of continuous melatonin treatment. J Comp Physiol B174: 1–12, 2004.
40.
CahillGFJr.Starvation in man. Clin Endocrinol Metab5: 397–415, 1976.
41.
KaloyianniM, FreedlandRA. Effect of diabetes and time after in vivo insulin administration on ketogenesis and gluconeogenesis in isolated rat hepatocytes. Int J Biochem22: 159–164, 1990.
42.
RothwellNJ, SavilleME, StockMJ. Role of insulin in thermogenic responses to refeeding in 3-day-fasted rats. Am J Physiol245:E160–165, 1983.
43.
CherringtonAD, WilliamsPE, ShulmanGl, LacyWW. Differential time course of glucagon's effect on glycogenosis and gluconeogenesis in the conscious dog. Diabetes30: 180–187, 1981.
44.
CarlsonMG, SneadWL, CampbellPJ. Regulation of free fatty acid metabolism by glucagon. J Clin Endocrinol Metab77: 11–15, 1993.
45.
BeylotM.Regulation of in vivo ketogenesis: role of free fatty acids and control by epinephrine, thyroid hormones, insulin and glucagon. Diabetes Metab22: 299–304, 1996.
46.
VuagnatBAM, PierrozDD, LalaouiM, EnglaroP, PralongFP, BlumWF, AubertML. Evidence for a leptin-neuropeptide Y axis for the regulation of growth hormone secretion in the rat. Neuroendocrinology67: 291–300, 1998.
47.
KnappJR, FreetlyHC, ReisBL, CalvertCC, BaldwinRL. Effects of somatotropin and substrates on patterns of liver metabolism in lactating dairy cattle. J Dairy Sci75: 1025–1035, 1992.
48.
RichelsenB.Action of growth hormone in adipose tissue. Horm Res48(Suppl 5):105–110, 1997.
49.
RothJ, GlickSM, YalowRS, BersonSA. Hypoglycemia: a potent stimulus to secretion of growth hormone. Science140: 987–988, 1963.
50.
DivertieGD, JensenMD, MilesJM. Stimulation of lipolysis in humans by physiological hypercortisolemia. Diabetes40: 1228–1232, 1991.
51.
SimmonsPS, MilesJM, GerichJE, HaymondMW. Increased proteolysis, an effect of increases in plasma Cortisol within the physiologic range. J Clin Invest73: 412–420, 1984.
NieminenP, MustonenA-M.Effects of peripheral ghrelin on the carbohydrate and lipid metabolism of the tundra vole (Microtus oeconomus).Gen Comp Endocrinol138:182–187, 2004.
54.
GavrilaA, ChanJL, YiannakourisN, KontogianniM, MillerLC, OrlovaC, MantzorosCS. Serum adiponectin levels are inversely associated with overall and central fat distribution but are not directly regulated by acute fasting or leptin administration in humans: cross-sectional and interventional studies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab88: 4823–4831, 2003.
SteppanCM, BaileyST, BhatS, BrownEJ, BanerjeeRR, WrightCM, PatelHR, AhimaRS, LazarMA. The hormone resistin links obesity to diabetes. Nature409: 307–312, 2001.
57.
LeeJH, ChanJL, YiannakourisN, KontogianniM, EstradaE, SeipR, OrlovaC, MantzorosCS. Circulating resistin levels are not associated with obesity or insulin resistance in humans and are not regulated by fasting or leptin administration: cross-sectional and interventional studies in normal, insulin-resistant, and diabetic subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab88: 4848–4856, 2003.
