Growth hormone (GH) release is under the direct control of hypothalamic releasing hormones, some being also produced peripherally. The role of these hypothalamic factors has been understood by in vitro studies together with such in vivo approaches as stalk sectioning. Secretion of GH is stimulated by GH-releasing hormone (GHRH) and ghrelin (acting via the GH secretagogue [GHS] receptor [GHSR]), and inhibited by somatostatin (SRIF). Other peptides/proteins influence GH secretion, at least in some species. The cellular mechanism by which the releasing hormones affect GH secretion from the somatotrope requires specific signal transduction systems (cAMP and/or calcium influx and/or mobilization of intracellular calcium) and/or tyrosine kinase(s) and/or nitric oxide (NO)/cGMP. At the subcellular level, GH release (at least in response to GHS) is accomplished by the following. The GH-containing secretory granules are moved close to the cell surface. There is then transient fusion of the secretory granules with the fusion pores in the multiple secretory pits in the somatotrope cell surface.
KojimaM, HosodaH, DateY, NakazatoM, MatsuoH, KangawaK.Ghrelin is a growth-hormone-releasing peptide from stomach. Nature402:656–660, 1999.
2.
ChoSJ, WakadeA, PappasGD, JenaBP. New structure involved in transient membrane fusion and exocytosis. Ann N Y Acad Sci971:254–256, 2002.
3.
FrohmanLA, KinemanRD. Growth hormone-releasing hormone: discovery, regulation, and actions. In: KostyoJL, GoodmanHM, Eds. Handbook of Physiology, Section 7, The Endocrine System, Vol V: Hormonal Control of Growth. American Physiological Society, New York:Oxford University Press. pp187–219, 1999.
4.
LeshinLS, BarbCR, KiserTE, RampacekGB, KraelingRR. Growth hormone-releasing hormone and somatostatin neurons within the porcine and bovine hypothalamus. Neuroendocrinology59:251–264, 1994.
5.
SilvermanBL, KaplanSL, GrumbachMM, MillerWL. Hormonal regulation of growth hormone secretion and messenger ribonucleic acid accumulation in cultured bovine pituitary cells. Endocrinology122:1236–1241, 1988.
6.
Vasilatos-YounkenR, TsaoPH, FosterDN, SmileyDL, BryantH, HeimanML. Restoration of juvenile baseline growth hormone secretion with preservation of the ultradian growth hormone rhythm by continuous delivery of growth hormone-releasing factor. J Endocrinol135:371–382, 1992.
7.
RadeckiSV, DeaverDR, ScanesCG. Triiodothyronine reduces growth hormone secretion and pituitary growth hormone mRNA in the chicken, in vivo and in vitro.Proc Soc Exp Biol Med205:340–346, 1994.
8.
TannenbaumGS, EpelbaumJ. Somatostatin. In: KostyoJL, GoodmanHM, Eds. Handbook of Physiology, Section 7, The Endocrine System, Vol V: Hormonal Control of Growth. American Physiological Society, New York: Oxford University Press, pp221–265, 1999.
9.
ReedDK, KorytkoAI, HipkinRW, WehrenbergWB, SchonbrunnA, CuttlerL.Pituitary somatostatin receptor (sst)1–5 expression during rat development: age-dependent expression of sst2. Endocrinology140:4739–4744, 1999.
10.
LeeHM, WangG, EnglanderEW, KojimaM, GreeleyGHJr.Ghrelin, a new gastrointestinal endocrine peptide that stimulates insulin secretion: enteric distribution, ontogeny, influence of endocrine, and dietary manipulations. Endocrinology143:185–190, 2002.
11.
MasudaY, TanakaT, InomataN, OhnumaN, TanakaS, ItohZ, HosodaH, KojimaM, KangawaK.Ghrelin stimulates gastric acid secretion and motility in rats. Biochem Biophys Res Commun276:905–908, 2000.
12.
HowardAD, FeighnerSD, CullyDF, ArenaJP, LiberatorPA, RosenblumCI, HamelinM, HreniukDL, PalyhaOC, AndersonJ, ParessPS, DiazC, ChouM, LiuKK, McKeeKK, PongSS, ChaungLY, ElbrechtA, DashkeviczM, HeavensR, RigbyM, SirinathsinghjiDJ, DeanDC, MelilloDG, PatchettAA, NargundR, GriffionPR, DeMartinoJA, GuptaSK, SchaefferJM, SmithRG, Van der Ploeg LHT. A receptor in pituitary and hypothalamus that functions in growth hormone release. Science 273:974–977, 1996.
13.
BowersCY. Growth hormone-releasing peptides. In: KostyoJL, GoodmanHM, Eds. Handbook of Physiology, Section 7, The Endocrine System, Vol V: Hormonal Control of Growth. American Physiological Society, New York: Oxford University Press, pp267–297, 1999.
14.
BennetPA, ThomasGB, HowardAD, FeighnerSD, Van Der PloegLH, SmithRG, RobinsonIC. Hypothalamic growth hormone secretagogue-receptor (GHS-R) expression is regulated by growth hormone in the rat. Endocrinology138:4552–4557, 1997.
15.
GuanXM, YuH, PalyhaOC, McKeeKK, FeighnerSD, SirinathsinghjiDJ, SmithRG, Van Der PloegLH, HowardAD. Distribution of mRNA encoding the growth hormone secretagogue receptor in brain and peripheral tissues. Brain Res Mol Brain Res48:23–29, 1997.
16.
YokoteR, SatoM, MatsubaraS, OhyeH, NiimiM, MuraoK, TakaharaJ.Molecular cloning and gene expression of growth hormone-releasing peptide receptor in rat tissues. Peptides19:15–20, 1998.
17.
MitchellV, BouretS, BeauvillianJC, SchillingA, PerretM, KordanC, EpelbaumJ.Comparative distribution of mRNA encoding the growth hormone secretagogue-receptor (GHS-R) in Microcebus murinus (primate, lemurian) and rat forebrain and pituitary. J Comp Neurol429:469–489, 2001.
18.
NakazatoM, MurakamiN, DateY, KojimaM, MatsuoH, KangawaK, MatsukuraS.A role for ghrelin in the central regulation of feeding. Nature409:194–198, 2001.
19.
TschöpM, SmileyDL, HeimanML. Ghrelin induces adiposity in rodents. Nature407:903–913, 2000.
HewsonAK, DicksonSL. Systemic administration of ghrelin induces Fos and Egr-1 proteins in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus of fasted and fed rats. J Neuroendocrinol12:1047–1049, 2000.
22.
DicksonSL, LuckmanSM. Induction of c-fos messenger ribonucleic acid in neuropeptide Y and growth hormone (GH)-releasing factor neurons in the rat arcuate nucleus following systemic injection of the GH secretagogue, GH-releasing peptide-6. Endocrinology138:771–777, 1997.
23.
BrobergerC, DeLeceaL, SutcliffeJC, HokfeltT.Hypocretin/orexinand melanin-concentrating hormone-expressing cells from distinct populations in the rodent lateral hypothalamus relationship to the neuropeptide Y and agouti gene-related protein systems. J Comp Neurol402:460–474, 1998.
24.
HorvathTL, DianoS, van Den PolAN. Synaptic interaction between hypocretin (orexin) and neuropeptide Y cells in the rodent and primate hypothalamus: a novel circuit implicated in metabolic and endocrine regulations. J Neurosci19:1072–1087, 1999.
25.
ShintaniM, OgawaY, EbiharaK, Aizawa-AbeM, MiyanagaF, TakayaK, HayashiT, InoveG, HosodaK, KojimaM, KanagawaK, NakaoK.Ghrelin, an endogenous growth hormone secretagogue, is a novel orexigenic peptide that antagonizes leptin action through activation of hypothalamic neuropeptide Y/Y1 receptor pathway. Diabetes50:227–232, 2001.
26.
LawrenceCB, SnapeAC, BaudoinFMH, LuckmanSM. Acute central ghrelin and GH secretagogues induce feeding and activate brain appetite centers. Endocrinology143:155–162, 2002.
27.
BrownJC, CookMA, DryburghT.Motilin, a gastric motor activity stimulating polypeptide: the complete amino acid sequence. Can J Biochem51:533–537, 1973.
28.
YanaiharaN, YanaiharaC, MochizukiT, IguchiK, HoshinoM.Chemical synthesis, radioimmunoassay, and distribution of immunoreactivity of motilin. In: Motilin. Z. Itoh, Ed. Tokyo: Academic Press, pp31–46, 1990.
29.
HuangZ, De ClercqP, DepoortereI, PeetersTL. Isolation and sequence of cDNA encoding the motilin precursor from monkey intestine. Demonstration of the motilin precursor in the monkey brain. FEBS Lett435:149–152, 1998.
30.
FeighnerSD, TanCP, McKeeKK, PalyhaOC, HreniukDL, PongSS, AustinCP, FigueroaD, MacNeilD, CascieriMA, NargundR, BakshiR, AbramovitzM, StoccoR, KargmanS, O'neillG, Van Der PloegLHT, EvansJ, PatchettAA, SmithRG, HowardAD. Receptor for motilin identified in the human gastrointestinal system. Science284:2184–2188, 1999.
31.
ConveyEM, TuckerHA, SmithVG, ZolmanJ.Bovine prolactin, growth hormone, thyroxine and corticoid response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone. Endocrinology92:471–476, 1973.
32.
JohkeT.Effects of TRH on circulating growth hormone, prolactin and triiodothyronine levels in the bovine. Endocrinol Japon25:19–26, 1978.
33.
SpencerGSG, GarssenGJ, ColenbranderB, MeijerJC. Effect of somatostatin and thyrotropin-releasing hormone on the levels of growth hormone in the circulation of the chronically catheterized pig fetus in utero.J Endocrinol106:121–124, 1985.
34.
HarveyS, ScanesCG, ChadwickA, BoltonNJ. The effect of thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) and somatostatin (GHRIH) on growth hormone and prolactin secretion in vitro and in vivo in the domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus). Neuroendocrinology26:249–260, 1978.
35.
HarveyS, ScanesCG. Comparative stimulation of growth hormone secretion in anaesthetized chickens by human pancreatic growth hormone-releasing factor (hpGRF) and thyrotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH). Neuroendocrinology39:314–320, 1984.
36.
ScanesCG, HarveyS.Stimulation of growth hormone secretion by human pancreatic growth-hormone-releasing factor and thyrotrophin-releasing hormone in anaesthetized chicken. Gen Comp Endocrinol56:198–203, 1984.
37.
DubreuilP, CoutureY, PelletierG, PetitclercD, DelormeL, LapierreH, GaudreauP, MorisseJ, BrazeauP.Effect of long-term administration of porcine growth hormone-releasing factor and(or) thyrotropin releasing factor on growth hormone, prolactin and thyroxine in growing pigs. J Anim Sci68:95–107, 1990.
38.
ThomsettMJ, Marti-HennebergC, GluckmanPD, KaplinSL, RudolphAM, GrumbackMM. Hormone ontogeny in the ovine fetus. VII. The effect of thyrotropin-releasing factor on prolactin and growth hormone release in the fetus and neonate. Endocrinology106:1074–1078, 1980.
39.
WrutniakC, CabelloG, CharrierJ, DulorJ-P, BlanchardM, BarentonB.Effects of TRH and GRF administration on GH, TSH, T4 and T3 secretion in the lamb. Reprod Nutr Dév27:501–510, 1987.
40.
RousseauK, La BelleN, PichavantK, MarchelidonJ, ChowBK, BoeufG, DufourS.Pituitary growth hormone secretion in the turbot, a phylogenetic recent teleost, is regulated by a specific pattern of neuropeptides. Neuroendocrinology74:375–385, 2001.
41.
ThompsonDLJr, RahmanianMS, DePewCL, BurleighDW, DeSouzaCJ, ColbornDR. Growth hormone in mares and stallions: pulsatile secretion, response to growth hormone-releasing hormone, and effects of exercise, sexual stimulation, and pharmacological agents. J Anim Sci70:1201–1207, 1992.
42.
KennedySR, ThompsonDLJr, PruettHE, BurnsPJ, DeghenghiR.Growth hormone response to a novel GH releasing tripeptide in horses: interaction with GnRH, TRH, and sulpiride. J Anim Sci80:744–750, 2002.
43.
PruettHE, ThompsonDLJr, CartmillJA, WilliamsCC, GentryLR. Thyrotropin releasing hormone interactions with growth hormone secretion in horses. J Anim Sci81:2343–2351, 2003.
44.
SherwoodNM, KruecklSL, McRoryJE. The origin and function of the pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP)/glucagon superfamily. Endocr Rev21:619–670, 2000.
45.
MurakamiY, KoshimuraK, YamauchiK, NishikiM, TanakaJ, FuruyaH, MiyakeT, KatoY.Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) stimulates growth hormone release from GH3 cells through type II PACAP receptor. Regul Pept56:35–40, 1995.
46.
HashizumeT, SolimanEB, KanematsuS.Effects of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and growth hormone releasing factor (GRF) on the release of growth hormone from cultured bovine anterior pituitary cells in vitro. Domest Anim Endocrinol11:331–337, 1994.
47.
Martinez-FuentesAJ, MalagonMM, CastanoJP, Garrido-GraciaJC, Gracia-NavarroF.Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) 38 and PACAP27 differentially stimulate growth hormone release and mRNA accumulation in porcine somatotropes. Life Sci62:2379–2390, 1998.
48.
RadcliffRP, LookinglandKJ, ChapinLT, TuckerHA. Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide induces secretion of growth hormone in cattle. Domest Anim Endocrinol21:187–196, 2001.
49.
PeetersK, LangoucheL, VandesandeF, DarrasVM, BerghmanLR. Effects of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) on cAMP formation and growth hormone release from chicken anterior pituitary cells. Ann N Y Acad Sci865:471–474, 1998.
50.
XiaoD, ChuMM, LeeEK, LinHR, WongAO. Regulation of growth hormone release in common carp pituitary cells by pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide: signal transduction involves cAMP-and calcium-dependent mechanisms. Neuroendocrinology76:325–338, 2002.
51.
MonteroM, YonL, RousseauK, ArimuraA, FoumierA, DufourS, VaudryH.Distribution, characterization, and growth hormone-releasing activity of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide in the European eel, Anguilla anguilla.Endocrinology139:4300–4310, 1998.
52.
WongAO, LiWS, LeeEK, LeungMY, TseLY, ChowBK, LinHR, ChangJP. Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide as a novel hypophysiotropic factor in fish. Biochem Cell Biol87:329–343, 2000.
53.
AlarconP, Garcia-SanchoJ.Differential calcium responses to the pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP) in the five main types of rat anterior pituitary. Pflugers Arch440:685–691, 2000.
54.
MurakamiY, KoshimuraK, YamauchiK, NishikiM, TanakaJ, KatoY.Roles and mechanisms of action of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) in growth hormone and prolactin secretion. Endocrinol J48:123–132, 2001.
55.
Martinez-FuentesAJ, CastanoJP, Gracia-NavarroF, MalagonMM. Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) 38 and PACAP27 activate common and distinct intracellular signaling pathways to stimulate growth hormone secretion from porcine somatotropes. Endocrinology139:5116–5124, 1998.
56.
MurakamiY, TanakaJ, KoshimuraK, KatoY.Involvement of tetrodoxin-sensitive sodium channels in rat growth hormone secretion induced by pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP). Regul Pept73:119–121, 1998.
57.
AndriesM, DenefC.Gonadotropin-releasing hormone influences the release of prolactin and growth hormone from intact rat pituitary in vitro during a limited period in neonatal life. Peptides1:527–532, 1995.
58.
MurthyCK, TurnerRJ, WongAO, RaoPD, RivierJE, PeterRE. Differential actions of a mammalian gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist on gonadotropin-II and growth hormone release in goldfish, Carassius auratus.Neuroendocrinology59:561–571, 1994.
59.
MurthyCK, ZhengW, TrudeauVL, NahomiakCS, RivierJE, PeterRE. In vivo actions of a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonist on gonadotropin-II and growth hormone secretion in goldfish, Carassius auratus.Gen Comp Endocrinol96:427–437, 1994.
60.
LiWS, LinHR, WongAO. Effects of gonadotropin-releasing hormone on growth hormone secretion and gene expression in common carp pituitary. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol132:335–341, 2002.
61.
UetskyAD, WeissBL, YunkerWK, ChangJP. Nitric oxide produced by a novel nitric oxide synthase isoform is necessary for gonadotropin-releasing hormone-induced growth hormone secretion via a cGMP-dependent mechanism. J Neuroendocrinol15:667–676, 2003.
62.
ShimonI, YanX, MagoffinDA, FriedmanTC, MelmedS.Intact leptin receptor is selectively expressed in human fetal pituitary and pituitary adenomas and signals human fetal pituitary growth hormone secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab83:4059–4064, 1998.
63.
IqbalJ, PompoloS, ConsidineRV, ClarkeIJ. Localization of leptin receptor-like immunoreactivity in the corticotropes, somatotropes, and gonadotropes in the ovine anterior pituitary. Endocrinology141:1515–1520, 2000.
64.
LinJ, BarbCR, MatteriRL, KraelingRR, ChenX, MeinersmannRJ, RampacekGB. Long form, leptin receptor mRNA expression in the brain, pituitary, and other tissues in the pig. Domest Anim Endocrinol19:53–61, 2000.
65.
LinJ, BarbCR, KraelingRR, RampacekGB. Growth hormone releasing factor decreases long form leptin receptor expression in porcine anterior pituitary cells. Domest Anim Endocrinol24:95–101, 2003.
MizunoI, OkimuraY, TakahashiY, KajiH, AbeH, ChiharaK.Leptin stimulates basal and GHRH-induced GH release from cultured rat anterior pituitary cells in vitro. Kobe J Med Sci45:221–227, 1999.
68.
CarroE, SeoaneLM, SenarisR, ConsidineRV, CasanuevaFF, DieguezC.Interaction between leptin and neuropeptide Y on in vivo growth hormone secretion. Neuroendocrinology68:187–191, 1998.
69.
CarroE, SenarisRM, SeoaneLM, FrohmanLA, ArimuraA, CasanuevaFF, DieguezC.Role of growth hormone (GH)-releasing hormone and somatostatin on leptin-induced GH secretion. Neuroendocrinology69:3–10, 1999.
70.
TannenbaumGS, GurdW, LapointeM.Leptin is a potent stimulator of spontaneous pulsatile growth hormone (GH) secretion and the GH response to GH-releasing hormone. Endocrinology139:3871–3875, 1998.
71.
GiustiM, BoccaL, FlorioT, CorsaroA, SpazianteR, SchettiniG, MinutoF.In vitro effect of human recombinant leptin and expression of leptin receptors on growth hormone-secreting human pituitary adenomas. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf)57:449–455, 2002.
72.
LloydRV, JinL, TsumanumaI, VidalS, KovacsK, HorvathE, ScheithauerBW, CouceME, BurgueraB.Leptin and leptin receptor in anterior pituitary function. Pituitary4:33–47, 2001.
73.
BarattaM, SaleriR, MainardiGL, ValleD, GiustinaA, TamaniniC.Leptin regulates GH gene expression and secretion and nitric oxide production in pig pituitary cells. Endocrinology143:551–557, 2002.
74.
DenverRJ, LichtP.Modulation of neuropeptide-stimulated pituitary hormone secretion in hatchling turtles. Gen Comp Endocrinol77:107–115, 1990.
75.
RousseauK, Le BelleN, MarchelidonJ, DufourS.Evidence that corticotropin-releasing hormone acts as a growth hormone-releasing factor in a primitive teleost, the European eel (Anguilla anguilla). J Neuroendocrinol11:385–392, 1999.
76.
PengC, HumphriesS, PeterRE, RivierJE, BlomqvistAG, LarhammarD.Actions of goldfish neuropeptide Y on the secretion of growth hormone and gonadotropin-II in female goldfish. Gen Comp Endocrinol90:306–317, 1993.
77.
PengC, ChangJP, YuKL, WongAO, Van GoorF, PeterRE, RivierJE. Neuropeptide-Y stimulates growth hormone and gonadotropin-II secretion in the goldfish pituitary: involvement of both presynaptic and pituitary cell actions. Endocrinology132:1820–1829, 1993.
78.
ArvatE, GianottiL, RamunniJ, GrottoliS, BrossaPC, BertagnaA, CamanniF, GhigoE.Effect of galanin on basal and stimulated secretion of prolactin, gonadotropins, thyrotropin, adrenocorticotropin and cortisol in humans. Eur J Endocrinol133:300–304, 1995.
79.
GiustinaA, BonfantiC, LiciniM, StefanaB, RagniG, TuranoA.Effect of galanin on growth hormone (GH) response to thyrotropin releasing hormone of rat pituitary GH-secreting adenomatous cells (GH1) in culture. Life Sci58:83–90, 1996.
80.
GiustinaA, RagniG, BollatiA, CozziR, LiciniM, PoiesiC, TurazziS, BonfantiC.Inhibitory effects of galanin on growth hormone (GH) release in cultured GH-secreting adenoma cells: comparative study with octreotide, GH-releasing hormone, and thyrotropin-releasing hormone. Metabolism46:425–430, 1997.
81.
DockrayGJ, ReeveJRJr, ShivelyJ, GaytonRJ, BarnardCS. A novel active pentapeptide from chicken brain identified by antibodies to FMRF-amide. Nature305:328–330, 1983.
82.
ChartrelN, DujardinC, LeprinceJ, DesruesL, TononMC, CellierE, CosetteP, JouenneT, SimonnetG, VaudryH.Isolation, characterization, and distribution of a novel neuropeptide, Rana RFamide (R-RFa), in the brain of the European green frog Rana esculenta.J Comp Neurol448:111–127, 2002.
83.
FujimotoM, TakeshitaK, WangX, TakabatakeI, FujisawaY, TeranishiH, OhtaniM, MuneokaY, OhtaS.Isolation and characterization of a novel bioactive peptide, Carassius RFamide (C-RFa), from the brain of the Japanese crucian carp. Biochem Biophys Res Commun242:436–440, 1998.
84.
UkenaK, IwakoshiE, MinakataH, TsutsuiK.A novel rat hypothalamic RFamide-related peptide identified by immunoaffinity chromatography and mass spectrometry. FEBS Lett512:255–258, 2002.
ChenC, ClarkeIJ. Modulation of Ca2+ influx in the ovine somatotroph by growth hormone-releasing factor. Am J Physiol268:E204–E212, 1995.
87.
ChenC.The effect of two-day treatment of primary cultured ovine somatotropes with GHRP-2 on membrane voltage-gated K+ currents. Endocrinology143:2659–2663, 2002.
88.
Glavaski-JoksimovicA, JeftinijaK, JeremicA, AndersonLL, JeftinijaS.Mechanism of action of growth hormone secretagogue, L-692,585, on cultured porcine somatotropes. J Endocrinol175:625–636, 2002.
89.
Glavaski-JoksimovicA, JeftinijaK, ScanesCG, AndersonLL, JeftinijaS.Stimulatory effect of ghrelin on isolated porcine somatotropes. Neuroendocrinology77:366–378, 2003.
90.
ValverdeI, PenalvaA, GhigoE, CasanuevaFF, DiequezC.Involvement in nitric oxide in the regulation of growth hormone secretion in dogs. Neuroendocrinology74:213–219, 2001.
91.
KosticTS, AndricSA, StojilkovicSS. Spontaneous and receptor-controlled soluble guanylyl cyclase activity in anterior pituitary cells. Mol Endocrinol155:1010–1022, 2001.
92.
BarattaM, SaleriR, MainardiGL, ValleD, GiustinaA, TamaniniC.Leptin regulates GH gene expression and secretion and nitric oxide production in pig pituitary cells. Endocrinology143:551–557, 2002.
93.
ChoSJ, KellyM, RognlienKT, ChoJ, HörberJK, JenaBP. SNAREs in opposing bilayers interact in a circular array to form conducting pores. Biophys J83:2522–2527, 2002.
94.
ChoSJ, QuinnAS, StromerMH, DashS, ChoJ, TaatjesDJ, JenaBP. Structure and dynamics of the fusion pore in live cells. Cell Biol Int26:35–42, 2002.
95.
JenaBP, ChoSJ, JeremicA, StromerMH, Abu-HamdahR.Structure and composition of the fusion pore. Biophys J84:1337–1343, 2003.
SchneiderSW, SritharanKC, GeibelJP, OberleithnerH, JenaBP. Surface dynamics in living acinar cells imaged by atomic force microscopy: identification of plasma membrane structures involved in exocytosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A94:316–321, 1997.
98.
ChoSJ, Abdus SattarAKM, JeongEH, SatchiM, ChoJ, DashS, MayesMS, StromerMH, JenaBP. Aquaporin 1 regulates GTP-induced rapid gating of water in secretory vesicles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A99:4720–4724, 2002.
99.
JenaBP, SchneiderSW, GeibelJP, WebsterP, OberleithnerH, SritharanKC. G1 regulation of secretory vesicle swelling examined by atomic force microscopy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A94:13317–13322, 1997.
100.
ChoSJ, JeftinijaK, GlavaskiA, JeftinijaS, JenaBP, AndersonLL. Structure and dynamics of the fusion pores in live GH-secreting cells revealed using atomic force microscopy. Endocrinology143:1144–1148, 2002.
101.
LeeJS, MayesMS, StromerMH, JenaBP, AndersonLL. Number of secretory vesicles in GH cells of the pituitary remain unchanged after secretion (abstract). 42nd Annual Meeting of the American Society for Cell Biology, December 14–18, 2002, Moscone Convention Center. Proceedings of American Society for Cell Biology 13(Suppl. 1):86a.
102.
KlindtJ, FordJJ, BerardinelliJG, AndersonLL. Growth hormone secretion after hypophysial stalk transection in pigs. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med172:508–513, 1983.
103.
PlouzekCA, MolinaJR, HardDL, ValeWW, RivierJ, TrenkleA, AndersonLL. Effects of growth hormone-releasing factor and somatostatin on growth hormone secretion in hypophysial stalk-transected beef calves. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med189:158–167, 1988.
104.
AndersonLL, FordJJ, KlindtJ, MolinaJR, ValeWW, RivierJ.Growth hormone and prolactin secretion in hypophysial stalk-transected pigs as affected by growth hormone and prolactin releasing and inhibiting factors. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med196:194–202, 1991.
105.
AndersonLL, HardDL, CarpenterLS, AwotwiEK, DiekmanMA, TrenkleAH, ChoSJ. Pregnancy, parturition, and lactation in hypophyseal stalk-transected beef heifers. J Endocrinol163:463–475, 1999.
106.
AndersonLL, HardDL, TrenkleAH, ChoSJ. Long-term growth after hypophyseal stalk transection and hypophysectomy of beef calves. Endocrinology140:2405–2414, 1999.
107.
HickeyGJ, DriskoJ, FaidleyT, ChangC, AndersonLL, NicolichS, McGuireL, RickesE, KrupaD, FeeneyW, FriscinoB, CunninghamP, FrazierE, ChenH, LaroqueP, SmithRG. Mediation by the central nervous system is critical to the in vivo activity of the GH secretagogue L-692,585. J Endocrinol148:371–380, 1996.
108.
GuillaumeV, MagnanE, CataldiM, DutourA, SauzeN, RenardM, RazafindraibeH, Conte-DevolxB, DeghenghiR, LenaertsV, OliverC.Growth hormone (GH)-releasing hormone secretion is stimulated by a new GH-releasing hexapeptide in sheep. Endocrinology135:1073–1076, 1994.
109.
DriskoJE, FaidleyTD, HoraDHJr, NiebauerGW, FeeneyW, FriscinoBF, HickeyGJ. Transorbital approach to the porcine pituitary. J Invest Surg9:305–311, 1996.
110.
DriskoJE, FaidleyTD, ChangCH, ZhangD, NicolichS, HoraDFJr, McNamaraL, RickesE, AbribatT, SmithRG, HickeyGJ. Hypophyseal-portal concentrations of growth hormone-releasing factor and somatostatin in conscious pigs: relationship to production of spontaneous growth hormone pulses. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med217:188–196, 1998.
111.
PlotskyPM, ValeW.Patterns of growth hormone-releasing factor and somatostatin secretion into the hypophyseal portal circulation of the rat. Science230:461–463, 1985.
112.
TannenbaumGS, LingN.The interrelationship of growth hormone releasing factor and somatostatin in generation of the ultradian rhythm of growth hormone secretion. Endocrinology115:1952–1957, 1984.
113.
CataldiM, MagnanE, GuillaumeV, DutourA, Conte-DevolxB, LombardiG, OliverC.Relationship between hypophyseal portal GRF and somatostatin and peripheral GH levels in the conscious sheep. J Endocrinol Invest17:717–722, 1994.
114.
FrohmanLA, DownsTR, ClarkeIJ, ThomasGB. Measurement of growth hormone-releasing hormone and somatostatin in hypothalamicportal plasma of unanesthetized sheep: spontaneous secretion and response to insulin-induced hypoglycemia. J Clin Invest86:17–24, 1990.
115.
LiS, CrenshawEBIII, RawsonEJ, SimmonsDM, SwansonLW, RosenfeldMG. Dwarf locus mutants lacking three pituitary cell types result from mutations in the POU-domain gene pit-1. Nature347:528–533, 1990.
116.
YuTP, SunHS, Wahls Sanchez-SerranoSI, RothschildMF, TuggleCK. Cloning of the full-length pig PITI (POU1F1) cDNA and a novel alternative PITI transcript, and functional studies of their encoded proteins. Anim Biotech12:1–19, 2001.
117.
SunHS, AndersonLL, YuTP, KimKS, KlindtJ, TuggleCK. Neonatal Meishan pigs show POU1F1 genotype effects on plasma GH and PRL concentration. Anim Reprod Sci69:223–237, 2002.
