Prevalence and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Patterns of Salmonella enterica Serovars Along the Dairy Value Chain: A One Health-Relevant Surveillance of Dairy Farms
Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2026
Prevalence and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Patterns of Salmonella enterica Serovars Along the Dairy Value Chain: A One Health-Relevant Surveillance of Dairy Farms
Raw milk is highly prone to microbial contamination and can carry Salmonella enterica serovars-like zoonotic pathogens. This study follows the One Health-informed framework to investigate the occurrence and potential contamination pathways of Salmonella enterica serovars along the raw milk value chain in Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, Northern India. A total of 900 samples consisted of raw milk (150), milk bucket swabs (150), milkers’ hand swabs (150), and farm floor swabs (150) collected from one local dairy farm, and one institutional dairy farm, and one retail milk outlet over a 6-months period. Overall, 19 samples (2%) were Salmonella enterica serovars positive, where pathogen occurrence was noted as 4.7% in farm floor swabs, 4.7% in milking bucket swabs, and 2% in raw milk. Salmonella enterica serovars was not detected in udder swabs, towel swabs, and milker hand swabs. Antimicrobial susceptibility analysis demonstrated high Salmonella enterica serovars (n = 19) resistance to ampicillin (73.7%) and tetracycline (68.4%), whereas multiple isolates (48%) exhibited multidrug resistance as well. These findings necessitate upgraded dairy hygiene practices, controlled antimicrobial use in veterinary medicine, and integrated One Health-relevant surveillance to mitigate raw milk consumption-associated public health risks in the studied region.
AdmasuHN, BedassaA, TessemaTS, et al.Seasonal variation of Salmonella enterica prevalence in milk and cottage cheese along the dairy value chain in three regions of Ethiopia. Food Safe Risk2024;11:2; doi: 10.1186/s40550-024-00108-4
2.
AdziteyF, TibileBA, AddyF, et al.Occurrence, antimicrobial susceptibility and genomic characterization of Salmonella enterica isolated from milk and related sources. Cogent Food Agric2025;11(1):2486330; doi: 10.1080/23311932.2025.2486330
3.
AhmadI, MalakHA, AbulreeshHH, et al.Environmental antimicrobial resistance and its drivers: A potential threat to public health. J Glob Antimicrob Resist2021;27:101–111; doi: 10.1016/j.jgar.2021.08.001
4.
AiychewS, ZewduA, MegerrsaB, et al.Occurrence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Salmonella enterica in milk along the supply chain, humans, the environment in Woliata sodo, Ethiopia. BMC Microbiol2024;24:538; doi: 10.1186/s12866-024-03689-4
5.
AliyoA, TeklemariamZ. Assessment of milk contamination, associated risk factors, and drug sensitivity patterns among isolated bacteria from raw milk Borena zone, Ethiopia. J Trop Med2022;2022:3577715; doi: 10.1155/2022/3577715
AsefaI, LegaboE, WoldeT, et al.Study on Salmonella isolates from fresh milk in dairy cows in selected districts of Woliata zone, Southern Ethiopia. Int J Microbiol2023;2023:6837797; doi: 10.1155/2023/6837797
9.
AsfawT, GenetuD, ShenkuteD, et al.Pathogenic bacteria and their antibiotic resistance patterns in milk, yoghurt and milk contact surfaces in Deber Berhan Town, Ethiopia. Infect Drug Resist2023;16:4297–4309; doi: 10.2147/IDR.S418793
10.
BalochA, BalochA, BalochA, et al.A cross-sectional study on the prevalence of Salmonella in raw milk in Tandojam and surrounding areas, Pakistan. J Anim Prod Adv2015;5(2):612–616; doi: 10.5455/japa.20150208013729
11.
Barzegar-BafroueiR, HagimohammadiB, ZandiH, et al.Frequency and antibiotic resistance pattern of Salmonella spp. isolated from traditional dairies and raw milk collected in Yazd province, Iran. Iran J Microbiol2024;16(6):755–762; doi: 10.18502/ijm.v16i6.17248
12.
BauerAW, KirbyWM, SherrisJC, et al.Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standardized single disk method. Am J Clin Pathol1966;45(4_ts):493–496.
13.
CLSI. Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing, 33rd ed. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute supplement M100. CLSI: Wayne, PA, USA; 2023.
14.
DeddefoA, MamoG, AsfawM, et al.Factors affecting the microbiological quality and contamination of farm bulk milk by Staphylococcus aureus in dairy farms in Asella, Ethiopia. BMC Microbiol2023;23(1):65; doi: 10.1186/s12866-022-02746-0
15.
El-BazAH, El-SherbiniM, AbdelkhalekA, et al.Prevalence and molecular characterization of Salmonella serovars in milk and cheese in Mansoura city. Egypt. J Adv Vet Anim Res2017;4:45–51; doi: 10.5455/javar.2017.d189
16.
GeinoroT, GebeyehuA, NgusieG, et al.Detection of Salmonella from raw cow milk and beef and its antibiotic susceptibility profile in selected districts of the Sidama regional State, Ethiopia. BMC Microbiol2025;25(1):402; doi: 10.1186/s12866-025-04128-8
17.
Gorska-WarsewiczH, RejmanK, LaskowskiW, et al.Milk and dairy products and their nutritional contribution to the average Polish. Nutrients2019;11(8):1771; doi: 10.3390/nu11081771
18.
HolschbachC, PeekSF. Salmonella in dairy cattle. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract2018;34(1):133–154; doi: 10.1016/j.cvfa.2017.10.005
19.
IrieY, OnoM, AritsuneM, et al.Cleaning procedures and cleanliness assessments of bucket milkers and suckling buckets on Japanese dairy farm. J Vet Med Sci2021;83(5):863–868; doi: 10.1292/jvms.20-0432
20.
KahsayAG, AsmelashT, KassayeE. Prevalence, risk factors and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of Salmonella from bulk milk at the dairy farm level in Mekelle and Southeast zones of Tigrai, Ethiopia. Microbiologyopen2025;14(6):e70190; doi: 10.1002/mbo3.70190
21.
KapoorS, GoelAD, JainV. Milk-borne diseases through the lens of One Health. Front Microbiol2023;14:1041051; doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1041051
22.
KarnsJS, Van KesselJS, McCulskeyBJ, et al.Prevalence of Salmonella enterica in bulk tank milk from U.S. dairies as determined by polymerase chain reaction. J Dairy Sci2005;88(10):3475–3479.
23.
KhanHA, NeyazLA, MalakHA, et al.Diversity and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of clinical and environmental Salmonella enterica serovars in Western Saudi Arabia. Folia Microbiol (Praha)2024;69(6):1305–1317; doi: 10.1007/s12223-024-01172-1
24.
KhanJA, AhmadI, GillR, et al.Prevalence, cross contamination, virulence and multidrug-resistance profiles of Staphylococcus aureus isolates from four middle-scale dairy farms in Bareilly, India. Foodborne Pathog Dis2025;22(8):540–550; doi: 10.1089/fpd.2024.0076
25.
KhanJA, RathoreRS, AbulreeshHH, et al.Microbiological quality analysis of buffalo raw milk in Northern India. Indian J Biotechnol Pharmaceut Res2018;6:1–4.
26.
KhanJA, RathoreRS, AhmadI, et al.Assessment of foodborne bacterial pathogens in buffalo raw milk using polymerase chain reaction based assay. Foodborne Pathog Dis2022;19(11):750–757; doi: 10.1089/fpd.2022.0044
27.
KumarG, KumarS, JangidH, et al.The rise of non-typhoidal Salmonella: An emerging global public health concern. Front Microbiol2025a;16:1524287; doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2025.1524287
28.
KumarR, AdeyemiNO, ChattarajS, et al.Antimicrobial resistance in Salmonella: One Health perspective on global food safety challenge. Sci One Health2025b;4:100117; doi: 10.1016/j.soh.2025.100117
29.
LingathuraiS, VellathuraiP. Bacteriological quality and safety of raw cow milk in Madurai (South India). Bangladesh J Sci Ind Res2013;48(2):109–114.
30.
Loor-GilerA, Sanchez-CastroC, Robayo-ChicoM, et al.High contamination of Salmonella spp. in raw milk in Ecuador: Molecular identification of Salmonella enterica serovars Typhi, Paratyphi, Enteritidis and Typhimurium. Front Sustain Food Syst2025;9:1593266; doi: fsufs.2025.1593266
31.
MalarPAS, ElangoA, SekarM, et al.Prevalence study of antimicrobial resistance among invasive Salmonella spp. in milk and dairy products in India. Asian J Dairy Food Res2025;44:1045–1050; doi: 10.18805/ajdfr.DR.2078
32.
ManzanoM, CocolinL, AstoriG, et al.Development of a PCR microplate-capture hybridization method for simple, fast and sensitive detection of Salmonella serovars in food. Mol Cell Probes1998;12(4):227–234; doi: 10.1006/mcpr.1998.0176
33.
MarcuD, BaltaI, HarveyM, et al.Impact of farm management practices on Salmonella occurrence at the farm level—A blend of traditional methods and artificial intelligence. Foods2026;15(4):676; doi: 10.3390/foods15040676
34.
MugabeA, MugampozaE, WacoPA. Prevalence of antibiotic and heat resistant Salmonella species in the dairy value chain. Cogent Food Agric2025;11(1):2566436; doi: 10.1080/23311932.2025.2566436
35.
NairDVT, VenkitanarayananK, JohnyAK. Antibiotic-resistant Salmonella in the food supply and the potential role of antibiotic alternatives for control. Foods2018;7:167; doi: 10.3390/foods7100167
36.
PopyNN, Rahman KhanMF, IslamMS, et al.Serovar-specific antimicrobial resistance and virulence profiles of Salmonella enterica from poultry in Bangladesh. Microbiologyopen2025;14(5):e70091; doi: 10.1002/mbo3.70091
37.
SambrookJ, RussellDW. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 3rd ed. Cold Spring Harbor, Cold Spring Harbor Press, New York. 2001.
38.
SinghP, SinghRV, GuptaB, et al.Prevalence study of Salmonella spp. in milk and milk products. Asian J Dairy Food Res2018;37:7–12; doi: 10.18805/ajdfr.DR-1252
39.
SubediD, ThakurS, GautamA, et al.Milk and meat safety in Nepal: Addressing challenges and exploring solutions. Sci One Health2025;4:100116; doi: 10.1016/j.soh.2025.100116
40.
TalukderH, RokySA, DebnathK, et al.Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance profile of Salmonella isolated from human, animal and environment samples in South Asia: A 10-year meta-analysis. J Epidemiol Glob Health2023;13(4):637–652; doi: 10.1007/s44197-023-00160-x
41.
TwomeyL, FureyA, O’BrienB, et al.Minimizing bacterial counts in bulk tank milk: A review with a focus on free-chlorine cleaning. Dairy2025;6(1):7; doi: 10.3390/dairy6010007
42.
Van KesselJS, KarnsJS, GorskiL, et al.Prevalence of Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes and fecal coliforms in bulk tank milk on U.S. dairies. J Dairy Sci2004;87(9):2822–2830; doi: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(04)73410-4
43.
VelooY, Abu ThahirSS, ZakariaZ, et al.A scoping review unveiling antimicrobial resistance patterns in the environment of Dairy farms across Asia. Antibiotics (Basel)2025;14(5):436; doi: 10.3390/antibiotics14050436
44.
WeinsteinE, LambaK, BondC, et al.Outbreak of Salmonella Typhimurium infections linked to commercially distributed raw milk-California and four other States, September 2023—March 2024. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep2025;74(27):433–438; doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm7427a1
YenewC, TadeleF, MinuyeB, et al.Raw cow milk nutritional content and microbiological quality predictors of South Gondar zone dairy farmers in Ethiopia, 2020. Heliyon2022;8(10):e11020; doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e.11020
48.
YisraT, TigistuA. Occurrence, risk factors, and antibiotic resistance patterns of Salmonella isolates obtained from dairy farms in Gondor Town, Northwest Ethiopia. BioMed Res Int2025;2025:7778947; doi: 10.1155/bmri./7778947
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
