Animal-derived foodstuffs are essential for human nutrition but may harbor pathogens responsible for foodborne diseases. In Maghreb countries (Algeria, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia), data on foodborne pathogen hazards are often limited and fragmented. To address this gap, the present systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to estimate the overall prevalence of foodborne pathogens in animal-derived foods in the Maghreb region from 2004 to 2025. A systematic literature search was conducted in two electronic databases (PubMed and Scopus) following PRISMA guidelines. A total of 80 studies met the inclusion criteria. Data were analyzed using the meta package in R software, applying a random-effects model. The pooled prevalence of pathogens in foods of animal origin was 26.6% (95% CI: 20.0–33.8), with high heterogeneity (I2 = 98.9%). The highest contamination was observed in raw poultry meat (36.1%). Eleven foodborne bacterial species were reported. Salmonella spp. was the most frequently reported (n = 18), with a pooled prevalence of 14.2%, followed by Staphylococcus aureus (28.3%, n = 16) and Escherichia coli (36%, n = 16). Most studies were conducted in Algeria and Morocco, with country-level prevalence ranging from 22.1% to 38.1%. This review reveals a substantial burden of foodborne pathogens in the Maghreb region. Enhanced surveillance and targeted control measures are essential to improve food safety and protect public health.
AlgammalAM, EidHM, AlghamdiS, et al.Meat and meat products as potential sources of emerging MDR Bacillus cereus: GroEL Gene sequencing, toxigenic and antimicrobial resistance. BMC Microbiol2024;24(1):50; doi: 10.1186/s12866-024-03204-9
2.
AmajoudN, LeclercqA, SorianoJM, et al.Prevalence of Listeria spp. and characterization of listeria monocytogenes isolated from food products in Tetouan, Morocco. Food Control2018;84:436–441; doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.08.023
3.
AminMB, TalukdarPK, SraboniAS, et al.Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of major foodborne pathogens isolated from pangas and tilapia fish sold in retail markets of Dhaka City, Bangladesh. Int J Food Microbiol2024;418:110717; doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2024.110717
4.
AnelichL, LuesR. Prevalence of foodborne diseases in Africa. In: Encyclopedia of Food Safety, 2nd ed. (SmithersGW.) Academic Press: Oxford; 2024; pp. 87–103; doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-822521-9.00220-3
5.
AnsarifarE, RiahiSM, TasaraT, et al.Campylobacter prevalence from food, animals, human and environmental samples in Iran: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Microbiol2023;23(1):126; doi: 10.1186/s12866-023-02879-w
6.
ArabS, NalboneL, GiarratanaF, et al.Occurrence of Vibrio spp. Along the algerian mediterranean coast in wild and farmed Sparus aurata and Dicentrarchus labrax. Vet World2020;13(6):1199–1208; doi: 10.14202/vetworld.2020.1199-1208
7.
AssefaA, BihonA. A systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence of Escherichia coli in foods of animal origin in Ethiopia. Heliyon2018;4(8):e00716; doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00716
8.
BadriS, FilliolI, CarleI, et al.Prevalence of virulence genes in escherichia coli isolated from food in Casablanca (Morocco). Food Control2009;20(6):560–564; doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2008.08.015
9.
BellilZ, MeyerS, TilloyV, et al.Prevalence and antibiotic susceptibility of nontyphoidal salmonella from food-animal products in Bejaia, Algeria. Foodborne Pathog Dis2025;22(10):715–722; doi: 10.1089/fpd.2024.0036
10.
BenkerroumN, BouhlalY, El AttarA, et al.Occurrence of Shiga toxin-producing escherichia coli o157 in selected dairy and meat products marketed in the city of rabat, Morocco. J Food Prot2004;67(6):1234–1237; doi: 10.4315/0362-028x-67.6.1234
BouhamedR, HamdiTM.Campylobacter spp. at different stages of the poultry slaughtering line in Algeria: Evaluation of direct and indirect modified ISO 10272:2017 detection methods and characterization of the isolates. Arch Razi Inst2023;78(5):1657–1667; doi: 10.32592/ari.2023.78.5.1657
13.
CavalcantiAAC, LimeiraCH, SiqueiraINd, et al.The prevalence of listeria monocytogenes in meat products in Brazil: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Res Vet Sci2022;145:169–176; doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2022.02.015
ChaalalW, ChaalalN, BourafaN, et al.Characterization of staphylococcus aureus isolated from food products in western Algeria. Foodborne Pathog Dis2018;15(6):353–360; doi: 10.1089/fpd.2017.2339
16.
ChahedA, ChinaB, MainilJ, et al.Prevalence of enterohaemorrhagic escherichia coli from serotype o157 and other attaching and effacing escherichia coli on bovine carcasses in Algeria. J Appl Microbiol2006;101(2):361–368; doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2006.02954.x
17.
ChenL, AlaliW. Editorial: Recent discoveries in human serious foodborne pathogenic bacteria: Resurgence, pathogenesis, and control strategies. Front Microbiol2018;9:2412.
18.
ChenY, ChenD, WangY, et al.Using freeman-tukey double arcsine transformation in meta-analysis of single proportions. Aesthetic Plast Surg2023;47(Suppl 1):83–84; doi: 10.1007/s00266-022-02977-6
19.
ColstonJM, DevleesschauwerB, FlynnT, et al.Updated estimates of the global, regional and national burden, and etiology of diarrheal diseases transmissible via food: A systematic review and meta-analytical modelling study for the world health organization. medRxiv2026; doi: 10.64898/2026.01.26.26344508
20.
CufaogluG, AmbarciogluP, AyazND. Meta-analysis of the prevalence of listeria spp. and antibiotic resistant l. Monocytogenes isolates from foods in Turkey. LWT2021;144:111210; doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111210
21.
DamianosA, TsitsosA, EconomouV, et al.Systematic review and meta-analysis of the occurrence of esbl-producing escherichia coli and salmonella spp. in foods of animal origin in Europe. Food Control2025;171:111127; doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2024.111127
22.
DasS, DasP, DasA, et al.A systematic review and meta-analysis on the prevalence of brucella melitensis in sheep and goat. Vet Med Sci2025;11(6):e70667; doi: 10.1002/vms3.70667
23.
DeddefoA, MamoG, LetaS, et al.Prevalence and molecular characteristics of staphylococcus aureus in raw milk and milk products in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. FoodContamination2022;9(1):8; doi: 10.1186/s40550-022-00094-5
24.
DiD, LeeA, JangJ, et al.Season-specific occurrence of potentially pathogenic vibrio spp. on the southern coast of South Korea. Appl Environ Microbiol2017;83(3):e0268016–e02616; doi: 10.1128/AEM.02680-16
25.
DinedeG,AmenuK,AlonsoS,et al.Foodborne Hazards in Food in Burkina Faso, 1990–2019: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front Sustain Food Syst2023(7):1232992; doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2023.1232992
26.
DoyleMP, Diez-GonzalezF, HillC. Food Microbiology: Fundamentals and Frontiers. John Wiley & Sons; 2020.
27.
DuvalS, TweedieR. Trim and fill: A simple funnel‐plot–based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta‐analysis. Biometrics2000;56(2):455–463; doi: 10.1111/j.0006-341X.2000.00455.x
28.
Ed-DraA, FilaliFR, KarraouanB, et al.Prevalence, molecular and antimicrobial resistance of salmonella isolated from sausages in Meknes, Morocco. Microb Pathog2017;105:340–345; doi: 10.1016/j.micpath.2017.02.042
29.
EggerM, SmithGD, SchneiderM, et al.Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ1997;315(7109):629–634; doi: 10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629
30.
El BaabouaA, El MaadoudiM, BouyahyaA, et al.Prevalence and antimicrobial profiling of campylobacter spp. isolated from meats, animal, and human feces in Northern of Morocco. Int J Food Microbiol2021;349:109202; doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2021.109202
31.
FouadMT, Abu-El-KhairAG, FawzySM, et al.Bacteriological quality of sausage sold in great Cairo area. Egypt J Chem2022;65(5):307–312; doi: 10.21608/ejchem.2021.99635.4634
32.
FroelichBA, DainesDA. In Hot water: Effects of climate change on vibrio–human interactions. Environ Microbiol2020;22(10):4101–4111; doi: 10.1111/1462-2920.14967
33.
GharbiM, BéjaouiA, HamdaCB, et al.Campylobacter spp. in eggs and laying hens in the north-east of Tunisia: High prevalence and multidrug-resistance phenotypes. Vet Sci2022;9(3):108; doi: 10.3390/vetsci9030108
34.
Gonçalves-TenórioA, SilvaBN, RodriguesV, et al.Prevalence of pathogens in poultry meat: A meta-analysis of European published surveys. Foods2018;7(5):69; doi: 10.3390/foods7050069
35.
Gonzales-BarronU, Gonçalves-TenórioA, RodriguesV, et al.Foodborne pathogens in raw milk and cheese of sheep and goat origin: A meta-analysis approach. Curr Opin Food Sci2017;18:7–13; doi: 10.1016/j.cofs.2017.10.002
36.
GuoC, HoekstraRM, SchroederCM, et al.Application of bayesian techniques to model the burden of human salmonellosis attributable to U.S. food commodities at the point of processing: Adaptation of a danish model. Foodborne Pathog Dis2011;8(4):509–516; doi: 10.1089/fpd.2010.0714
37.
GuptaR, GuptaA, SinghRP, et al.Food Allergies. In: Food Safety and Human Health. (SinghRL and MondalS eds) Academic Press; 2019; pp. 99–125; doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-816333-7.00004-7
38.
HassenB, JouiniA, ElbourM, et al.Detection of extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBL) producing enterobacteriaceae from fish trapped in the lagoon area of bizerte, Tunisia. Biomed Res Int2020;2020:7132812; doi: 10.1155/2020/7132812
39.
HassenaAB, SialaM, GuermaziS, et al.Occurrence and phenotypic and molecular characterization of antimicrobial resistance of salmonella isolates from food in Tunisia. J Food Prot2019;82(7):1166–1175; doi: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-18-607
40.
HavelaarAH, KirkMD, TorgersonPR, World Health Organization Foodborne Disease Burden Epidemiology Reference Group. et al.World health organization global estimates and regional comparisons of the burden of foodborne disease in 2010. PLoS Med2015;12(12):e1001923.
41.
HennekinneJ-A. Staphylococcus aureus as a Leading Cause of Foodborne Outbreaks Worldwide. In: Staphylococcus aureus (FetschAB.) Academic Press; Cambridge, MA; 2018; pp. 129–146; doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-809671-0.00007-3
42.
HerediaN, GarcíaS. Animals as sources of food-borne pathogens: A review. Anim Nutr2018;4(3):250–255; doi: 10.1016/j.aninu.2018.04.006
43.
HesselCT, de Freitas CostaE, BoffRT, et al.A systematic review and bayesian meta-analysis about salmonella spp. prevalence on raw chicken meat. Microb Risk Anal2022;21:100205; doi: 10.1016/j.mran.2022.100205
44.
HigginsJ, ThompsonS, DeeksJ, et al.Statistical heterogeneity in systematic reviews of clinical trials: A critical appraisal of guidelines and practice. J Health Serv Res Policy2002;7(1):51–61; doi: 10.1258/1355819021927674
45.
HigginsJPT, ThompsonSG, DeeksJJ, et al.Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. BMJ2003;327(7414):557–560; doi: 10.1136/bmj.327.7414.557
46.
HinsonC, TonouhewaA, AzokpotaP, et al.Global prevalence and antibiotic resistance profiles of bacterial pathogens in table eggs: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Vet World2025;18(4):939–954.
47.
HuoyL, VuthS, HoengS, et al.Prevalence of Salmonella Spp. in Meat, Seafood, andLeafy Green Vegetables from Local Markets and Vegetable Farms in Phnom Penh,Cambodia. Food Microbiol2024;124:104614; doi: 10.1016/j.fm.2024.104614
48.
IbrahimD, AwadA, YounisG. Prevalence and characterization of quinolone-resistant escherichia coli isolated from retail raw beef and poultry meat in Egypt. J Adv Vet Anim Res2023;10(3):490–499; doi: 10.5455/javar.2023.j702
49.
IslamMS, IslamMA, RahmanMM, et al.Presence of brucella spp. in milk and dairy products: A comprehensive review and its perspectives. J Food Qual2023;2023(1):1–19; doi: 10.1155/2023/2932883
50.
IssaA, HarbC, Hanna-WakimL. Foodborne Diseases in the Eastern Mediterranean Countries: Overview, Challenges and Recommendations. In: Encyclopedia of Food Safety, 2nd ed. (SmithersGW.) Academic Press: Oxford; 2024; pp. 113–126; doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-822521-9.00020-4
51.
JribiH, SellamiH, MariamS, et al.Isolation and identification of campylobacter spp. from poultry and poultry by-products in tunisia by conventional culture method and multiplex real-time PCR. J Food Prot2017;80(10):1623–1627; doi: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-16-321
52.
KhairullahAR, YanestriaSM, EffendiMH, et al.Campylobacteriosis: A rising threat in foodborne illnesses. Open Vet J2024;14(8):1733–1750.
53.
KhemiriM, AbbassiMS, ElghaiebH, et al.High occurrence of enterotoxigenic isolates and low antibiotic resistance rates of staphylococcus aureus isolated from raw milk from cows and ewes. Lett Appl Microbiol2019;68(6):573–579; doi: 10.1111/lam.13152
54.
KriemMR, BanniB, El BouchtaouiH, et al.Prevalence of vibrio spp. in raw shrimps (parapenaeus longirostris) and performance of a chromogenic medium for the isolation of vibrio strains. Lett Appl Microbiol2015;61(3):224–230; doi: 10.1111/lam.12455
55.
LéguillierV, PinamontiD, ChangC-M, et al.A review and meta-analysis of staphylococcus aureus prevalence in foods. Microbe2024;4:100131; doi: 10.1016/j.microb.2024.100131
56.
LiX, ZhengJ, ZhaoW, et al.Prevalence of listeria monocytogenes in milk and dairy product supply chains: A global systematic review and meta-analysis. Foodborne Pathog Dis2024;21(9):526–535; doi: 10.1089/fpd.2024.0029
57.
MaJ-Y, ZhuX-K, HuR-G, et al.A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the global prevalence of foodborne vibrio spp. infection in fishes: A persistent public health concern. Mar Pollut Bull2023;187:114521; doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.114521
58.
MairiA, TouatiA, PantelA, et al.Distribution of toxinogenic methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible staphylococcus aureus from different ecological niches in Algeria. Toxins (Basel)2019;11(9):500; doi: 10.3390/toxins11090500
59.
MiaoS, LiuL, FuZ. Prevalence of salmonella in chinese food commodities: A meta-analysis. J Food Prot2022;85(5):859–870; doi: 10.4315/JFP-21-304
60.
MoffoF, NdebéMMF, DahI, et al.Antimicrobial resistance profiles of escherichia coli and staphylococcus spp. isolated from locally produced fish and imported fish sold in the centre region of cameroon. J Food Prot2024;87(12):100377; doi: 10.1016/j.jfp.2024.100377
61.
NaranchimegB, ChantsalB, SandagdorjB, et al.Detection of Brucella spp. from milk by quantitative pcr as a monitoring method for brucellosis in cattle in mongolia. BMC Vet Res2025;21(1):466; doi: 10.1186/s12917-025-04918-2
62.
OsimaniA, AquilantiL, ClementiF. Bacillus cereus foodborne outbreaks in mass catering. Int J Hosp Manag2018;72:145–153; doi: 10.1016/j.ijhm.2018.01.013
63.
OuQ, PengY, LinD, et al.A meta-analysis of the global prevalence rates of staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant s. aureus contamination of different raw meat products. J Food Prot2017;80(5):763–774; doi: 10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-16-355
64.
OuQ, ZhouJ, LinD, et al.A large meta-analysis of the global prevalence rates of s. aureus and MRSA contamination of milk. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr2018;58(13):2213–2228; doi: 10.1080/10408398.2017.1308916
65.
OueslatiW, RjeibiMR, BenyedemH, et al.Salmonella broiler meat’s contamination in tunisia: Prevalence, serotypes, antimicrobial resistance and molecular characterization of isolated strains. Curr Microbiol2022;79(7):208; doi: 10.1007/s00284-022-02900-x
66.
PageMJ, McKenzieJE, BossuytPM, et al.The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. Int J Surg2021;88:105906.
67.
Panera-MartínezS, Rodríguez-MelcónC, Serrano-GalánV, et al.Prevalence, quantification and antibiotic resistance of listeria monocytogenes in poultry preparations. Food Control2022;135:108608; doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108608
68.
PaudyalN, AnihouviV, HounhouiganJ, et al.Prevalence of foodborne pathogens in food from selected african countries—a meta-analysis. Int J Food Microbiol2017;249:35–43; doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2017.03.002
69.
PiovaniD, FiglioliG, NikolopoulosGK, et al.The global burden of enteric fever, 2017-2021: A systematic analysis from the global burden of disease study 2021. EClinicalMedicine2024;77:102883; doi: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2024.102883
70.
PiresSM, VieiraAR, HaldT, et al.Source attribution of human salmonellosis: An overview of methods and estimates. Foodborne Pathog Dis2014;11(9):667–676; doi: 10.1089/fpd.2014.1744
71.
RahnamaH, AzariR, YousefiMH, et al.A systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence of bacillus cereus in foods. Food Control2023;143:109250; doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109250
72.
RashwanAE-TA, DarwishWS, Abd El-AttyNS, et al.Prevalence, Antibiotic Resistance and Molecular Profiling of E. Coli and Salmonella spp. in Poultry Meat and Its Products from Minia, Egypt. J Vet Sci2025;56(13):317–325.
73.
RebbahN, MessaiY, ChâtreP, et al.Diversity of CTX-M extended-spectrum β-lactamases in escherichia coli isolates from retail raw ground beef: First report of CTX-M-24 and CTX-M-32 in Algeria. Microb Drug Resist2018;24(7):896–908; doi: 10.1089/mdr.2017.0171
74.
Ben SaidL, HamdaouiM, KlibiA, et al.Diversity of species and antibiotic resistance in enterococci isolated from seafood in Tunisia. Ann Microbiol2017;67(1):135–141; doi: 10.1007/s13213-016-1246-y
75.
SalihBM, NoureddineA, KhatibB, et al.Prevalence and characterization of virulence genes toxin-producing Escherichia coli enterohemorragic 0157:H7 strain isolated from frozen imported bovine meat in Algeria. J Pure Appl Microbiol2014;8(2):1145–1152.
76.
SamiaD, BakirM, RachidE, et al.Prevalence and genotypic characterization of salmonella spp. from chicken meats marketed in the province of Skikda, Algeria. J Infect Dev Ctries2021;15(4):523–529; doi: 10.3855/jidc.13986
77.
SchwarzerG, RückerG. Meta-analysis of proportions BT - meta-research: Methods and Protocols. (EvangelouE and VeronikiAA. eds) Springer US: New York, NY; 2022; pp. 159–172; doi: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_10
78.
ShahbazpourN, HosseiniE, BehbahanSEB, et al.The prevalence of brucella spp. in dairy products in Iran: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Foodborne Pathog Dis2025;22(2):71–85; doi: 10.1089/fpd.2024.0093
79.
SoleimaniM, HosseiniH, PilevarZ, et al.Prevalence, molecular identification and characterization of bacillus cereus isolated from beef burgers. J Food Saf2018;38(1):e12414; doi: 10.1111/jfs.12414
80.
SunT, WangR, SunY, et al.The global prevalence of bacillus spp. in milk and dairy products: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Foods2025;14(15):2599; doi: 10.3390/foods14152599
81.
TaghizadehM, NematollahiA, BashiryM, et al.The global prevalence of campylobacter spp. in milk: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int Dairy J2022;133:105423; doi: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2022.105423
82.
ThomasKM, de GlanvilleWA, BarkerGC, et al.Prevalence of campylobacter and salmonella in African food animals and meat: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Food Microbiol2020;315:108382; doi: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2019.108382
83.
TitoucheY, HakemA, HoualiK, et al.emergence of methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (mrsa) st8 in raw milk and traditional dairy products in the tizi ouzou area of Algeria. J Dairy Sci2019;102(8):6876–6884; doi: 10.3168/jds.2018-16208
84.
WambuiJ, NjagePM, TasaraT, et al.Meta-analysis and meta-regression indicate dynamic prevalence and moderators of foodborne pathogens in African indigenous fermented milk. Microorganisms2019;7(11):563; doi: 10.3390/microorganisms7110563
85.
WHO (World Health Organization). Framework for Implementing the WHO Global Strategy for Food Safety 2022–2030 in the African Region. A region AFR-RC74-10; 2024.
86.
WHO (World Health Organization). Food safety and nutrition food, law guidelines. Regional Office for Africa; 2017.
87.
XavierC, Gonzales-BarronU, PaulaV, et al.Meta-analysis of the incidence of foodborne pathogens in portuguese meats and their products. Food Res Int2014;55:311–323; doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2013.11.024
88.
ZbrunMV, RosslerE, Romero-ScharpenA, et al.Worldwide meta-analysis of the prevalence of campylobacter in animal food products. Res Vet Sci2020;132:69–77; doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2020.05.017
89.
ZhangJ, WangJ, JinJ, et al.Prevalence, antibiotic resistance, and enterotoxin genes of staphylococcus aureus isolated from milk and dairy products worldwide: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Food Res Int2022;162(Pt A):111969; doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111969
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
