This study examines the relationship between basic assumptions, posttraumatic growth (PTG), and ambiguity tolerance (AT). It is hypothesized that basic assumptions will mediate the relationship between AT and PTG and that trauma will have a moderating effect in this model. A group of 274 university and college students, average age of 23, who either experienced a traumatic event or not, completed the following questionnaires: Measure of Ambiguity Tolerance, World Assumptions Scale, and Posttraumatic Growth Inventory. The results indicate that the relationship between AT and PTG is mediated by basic assumptions but only among participants who were not exposed to a traumatic event. Thus, the trauma is a moderating variable in this model. The findings are discussed in terms of a defensive search for meaning following stressful life events, according to the individual's perception of the event.
Abramson, L.Y., Seligman, M.E.P., & Teasdale, J. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation . Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 49-74.
2.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author .
3.
Amir, M., & Sol, O. (1999). Psychological impact and prevalence of traumatic events in a student sample in Israel: The effect of multiple traumatic events and physical injury. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12, 139-154.
4.
Anderson, S.M., & Schwartz, A.H. (1992). Intolerance of ambiguity and depression: A cognitive vulnerability linked to hopelessness. Social Cognition, 10, 271-298.
5.
Baron, R.M., & Kenny, D.A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychology research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
6.
Ben Ya'akov (1999). Traumas in military and civilian contexts, posttraumatic stress disorder and suicidal risk. Master of arts degree dissertation, Department of Psychology, Ben Gurion, Beer Sheva, Israel.
7.
Budner, S. (1962). Intolerance of ambiguity as a personality variable . Journal of Personality, 30, 29-50.
8.
Calhoun, L.G. (1996, August). Posttraumatic growth: A functional descriptive model. In R. G. Tedeschi (Chair), Posttraumatic growth: An overview of contemporary models. Symposium conducted at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association , Toronto.
9.
Calhoun, L.G., Cann, A., Tedeschi, R.G., & McMillan, J. (1998). Traumatic events and generational differences in assumptions about a just world. Journal of Social Psychology , 138, 789-791.
10.
Calhoun, L.G., Cann, A., Tedeschi, R.G., & McMillan, J. (2000). A correlational test of the relationship between posttraumatic growth, religion, and cognitive processing. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 521-527.
11.
Calhoun, L.G., & Tedeschi, R.G. (1998a). Beyond recovery from trauma: Implications for clinical practice and research. Journal of Social Issues, 54, 357-371.
12.
Calhoun, L.G., & Tedeschi, R.G. (1998b). Posttraumatic growth: Future directions. In R. G. Tedeschi, C. L. Park, & L. G. Calhoun (Eds.), Posttraumatic growth: Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis (pp. 127-151). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
13.
Cohen, L.H., Hettler, T.R., & Pane, N. (1998). Assessment of posttraumatic growth. In R. G. Tedeschi, C. L. Park , & L. G. Calhoun (Eds.), Posttraumatic growth: Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis (pp. 23-42). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
14.
Collins, R.L., Taylor, S.E., & Skokan, L.A. (1990). A better world or a shattered vision? Changes in life perspectives following victimization. Social Cognition , 8, 263-285.
15.
Cordova, M.J., Cunningham, L.L.C., Carlson, C.R., & Andryowski, M.A. (2001). Posttraumatic growth following breast cancer: A controlled comparison study. Health Psychology , 20, 176-185.
16.
Dugas, M.J., Freeston, M.H., & Ladouceur, R. (1997). Intolerance of uncertainty and problem orientation in worry. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 21, 593-606.
17.
Dugas, M.J., Gagnon, F., Ladouceur, R., & Freeston, M.H. (1998). Generalized anxiety disorder: A preliminary test of a conceptual model. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 215-226.
18.
Dugas, M.J., Gosselin, P., & Ladouceur, R. (2001). Intolerance of uncertainty and worry: Investigating specificity in a nonclinical sample. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 551-558.
19.
Dugas, M.J., Ladouceur, R., Boisvert, J.M., & Freeston, M.H. (1996). Le trouble d'anxiete generalisee: Elements fondamentaux et interventions psychologiques [Generalized anxiety disorder: Fundamental elements and psychological interventions]. Canadian Psychology, 37, 40-53.
20.
Epstein, S. (1980). The self-concept: A review and the proposal of an integrated theory of personality. In E. Staub (Ed.), Personality: Basic issues and current research (pp. 82-132). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
21.
Franklin, K.M., Janoff-Bulman, R., & Roberts, J.E. (1989). Long-term impact of parental divorce on optimism and trust: Changes in general assumptions of narrow beliefs?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 743-755.
22.
Frazier, P., Conlon, A., & Glaser, T. (2001). Positive and negative life changes following sexual assault. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 1048-1055.
23.
Freeston, M.H., Rhéaume, J., Letarte, H., Dugas, J., & Ladouceur, R. (1994). Why do people worry?Personality and Individual Differences, 17, 791-802.
24.
Frenkle-Brunswick, E. (1948). Intolerance of ambiguity as an emotional and perceptual personality variable. Journal of Personality, 17, 108-143.
25.
Frenkle-Brunswick, E. (1949). Tolerance towards ambiguity as a personality variable . American Psychologist, 3, 268.
26.
Friedland, N., & Keinan, G. (1991). The effect of stress, ambiguity tolerance and trait anxiety on the formation of causal relationships. Journal of Research in Personality, 25, 88-107.
27.
Friedland, N., Keinan, G., & Tytiun, T. (1999). The effect of psychological stress and tolerance of ambiguity on stereotypic attributions. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 12, 397-410.
28.
Frone, M.R. (1990). Intolerance of ambiguity as a moderator of the occupational role stress-strain relationship: A meta-analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11, 309-320.
29.
Furnham, A. (1994). A content, correlational and factor analytic study of four tolerance of ambiguity questionnaires. Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 403-410.
30.
Furnham, A., & Ribchester, T. (1995). Tolerance of ambiguity: A review of the concept, its measurement and applications. Current Psychology: Development, Learning, Personality, Social, 14(3), 179-199.
31.
Holmbeck, G.N. (1997). Toward terminological, conceptual, and statistical clarity in the study of mediators and moderators: Examples from the child-clinical and pediatric psychology literatures. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 599-610.
32.
Janoff-Bulman, R. (1989a). The benefits of illusions, the threat of disillusionment, and the limitations of inaccuracy. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 8, 158-175.
33.
Janoff-Bulman, R. (1989b). Assumptive worlds and the stress of traumatic events: Applications of the schema construct. Social Cognition , 7, 113-136.
34.
Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). Shattered assumptions. New York: Free Press.
35.
Janoff-Bulman, R., & Schwarzberg, S. (1991). Toward a general model of personal change. In C. R. Snyder & D. R. Forsyth (Eds.), Handbook of social and clinical psychology: The health perspective (pp. 488-508). New York: Pergamon.
36.
Janoff-Bulman, R., & Timko, C. (1987). Coping with traumatic life events: The role of denial in light of people's assumptive worlds. In C. R. Snyder & C. Ford (Eds.), Coping with negative life events: Clinical and social psychological perspectives . New York: Plenum.
37.
Keenan, A., & McBain, G.D.M. (1979). Effects of type A behavior, intolerance of ambiguity, and locus of control on the relationship between role stress and work-related outcomes. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 52, 277-285.
38.
Keinan, G. (1994). Effects of tolerance of ambiguity on magical thinking . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 48-55.
39.
Krohne, H.W. (1989). The concept of coping modes: Relating cognitive person variables to actual coping behaviour. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 11, 235-248.
40.
Krohne, H.W. (1993). Vigilence and cognitive avoidance as concepts in coping research. In H. W. Krohne (Ed.), Attention and avoidance (pp. 19-50). Toronto: Hogrefe & Huber.
41.
Ladouceur, R., Dugas, M.J., Freeston, M.H., Leger, E., Gagnon, F., & Thibodeau, N. (2000). Efficacy of a cognitive-behavioral treatment for generalized anxiety disorder: Evaluation in a controlled clinical trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 957-964.
42.
Ladouceur, R., Gosselin, P., & Dugas, M.J. (2000). Experimental manipulation of intolerance of uncertainty: A study of a theoretical model of worry. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 933-941.
43.
Lazarus, R.S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer.
44.
Lehman, D., Davis, C., Delongis, A., Wortman, C., Bluck, S., Mandel, D., et al. (1993). Positive and negative life changes following bereavement and their relations to adjustment. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 12, 90-112.
45.
Lev-Wiesel, R., & Amir, M. (2003). Post-traumatic growth among Holocaust child survivors. Journal of Loss andTrauma, 8, 229-237.
46.
Lysonski, S., & Andrews, C.J. (1990). Effects of moderating variables on product managers' behavior. Psychological Reports, 66, 295-306.
47.
McDonald, A.P., Jr. (1970). Revised scale for ambiguity tolerance: Reliability and validity. Psychological Reports, 26, 791-798.
48.
Miller, W.R., & C'deBaca, J. (1994). Quantum change: Toward a psychology of transformation . In T. F. Heatherton & J. L. Weinberger (Eds.), Can personality change ? (pp. 253-281). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association .
49.
Nicotera, A.M., Smilowitz, M., & Pearson, J.C. (1990). Ambiguity tolerance, conflict management style and argumentativeness as predictors of innovativeness. Communication Research Reports, 7, 125-131.
50.
Norton, R.W. (1975). Measurement of ambiguity tolerance. Journal of Personality Assessment, 39, 607-619.
51.
O'Leary, V.E., Alday, S.C., & Ickovics, J.R. (1998). Models of life change and posttraumatic growth. In R. G. Tedeschi, C. L. Park, & L. G. Calhoun (Eds.), Posttraumatic growth: Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis (pp. 127-151). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
52.
O'Leary, V.E., & Ickovics, J.R. (1995). Resilience and thriving in response to challenge: An opportunity for a paradigm shift in women's health. Women's Health: Research on Gender, Behavior andPolicy, 1, 121-142.
53.
Overcash, W.S., Calhoun, L.G., Cann, A., & Tedeschi, R.G. (1996). Coping with crises: An examination of the impact of traumatic events on religious beliefs. Journal of GeneticPsychology, 157, 455-464.
54.
Park, C.L. (1998). Implications of posttraumatic growth for individuals . In R. G. Tedeschi, C. L. Park, & L. G. Calhoun (Eds.), Posttraumatic growth: Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis (pp. 153-177). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
55.
Park, C.L., Cohen, L.H., & Murch, R.L. (1996). Assessment and prediction of stress related growth . Journal of Personality, 64, 71-105.
56.
Rotter, N.G., & O'Connell, A.N. (1982). The relationships among sex-role orientation, cognitive complexity and tolerance of ambiguity. Sex Roles, 8, 1209-1220.
57.
Schaefer, J.A., & Moos, R.H. (1998). The context for posttraumatic growth: Life crises, individual and social resources, and coping. In R. G. Tedeschi, C. L. Park, & L. G. Calhoun (Eds.), Posttraumatic growth: Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis (pp. 99-125). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
58.
Taylor, S.E. (1983). Adjustment to threatening events: A theory of cognitive adaptation. American Psychologist, 38, 624-630.
59.
Taylor, S.E., & Brown, J. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin,103, 193-210.
60.
Tedeschi, R.G. (1999). Violence transformed: Posttraumatic growth in survivors and their societies. Aggression and Violent Behavior , 4, 319-341.
61.
Tedeschi, R.G., & Calhoun, L.G. (1996). The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress , 9, 455-471.
62.
Tedeschi, R.G., Park, C., & Calhoun, L.G. (1998). Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual issues. In R. G. Tedeschi, C. L. Park, & L. G. Calhoun (Eds.), Posttraumatic growth: Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis (pp. 1-22). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
63.
Tegano, D.W. (1990). Relationship of tolerance of ambiguity and playfulness to creativity. Psychological Reports, 66, 1047-1056.
64.
Tennen, H., & Affleck, G. (1998). Personality and transformation in the face of adversity. In R. G. Tedeschi, C. L. Park, & L. G. Calhoun (Eds.), Posttraumatic growth: Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis (pp. 65-98). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
65.
van der Kolk, B.A., & McFarlane, A.C. (1996). The black hole of trauma . In B. A. van der Kolk, A. C. McFarlane, & L. Weisaeth (Eds.), Traumatic stress (pp. 3-23). New York: Guilford.
66.
Zenasni, F., & Lubart, T. (2001). Adaptation francaise d'une epreuve de tolerance a l'ambiguite: Le M.A.T [French adaptation of a test of tolerance of ambiguity: The Measurement of Ambiguity Tolerance (MAT)]. Revue Européenne de psychologie appliquée, 51, 3-12.
