The acquisition of speech perception and consequent expression of language represent fundamental aspects of human functioning. Yet roughly 7% to 8% of children who are otherwise healthy and of normal intelligence exhibit unexplained delays and impairments in acquiring these skills. Ongoing research has revealed several key features of language disability that may pro-vide more direct insight into underlying anomalous neural functioning. For example, evidence supports a strong association between basic defects in processing rapidly changing acoustic information and emergent disruptions in speech perception, as well as cascading effects on other forms of language development (including reading). Considerable neurobiological research has thus focused on developmental factors that might deleteriously influence rapid sensory processing. Additional research focuses on mechanisms of neural plasticity, including how such brains might be “retrained” for improved processing of language. These and related findings from human clinical studies, electrophysiological studies, neuroimaging studies, and animal models are reviewed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
2.
Bachevalier, J., Brickson, M., Hagger, C., & Mishkin, M. (1990), Age and sex differences in the effects of selective temporal lobe lesions on the formation of visual discrimination habits in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Behavioral Neuroscience, 6, 885-899.
3.
Bachevalier, J., & Hagger, C. (1991). Sex differences in the development of learning abilities in primates. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 16, 177-188.
4.
Baker, L., & Cantwell, D. P. (1987a). Comparison of well, emotionally disordered, and behaviorally disordered children with linguistic problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 193-196.
5.
Baker, L., & Cantwell, D. P. (1987b). A prospective follow-up of children with speech/language disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 546-553.
6.
Balogh, S. A., Sherman, G. F., Hyde, L. A., & Denenberg, V. H. (1998). Effects of neocortical ectopias upon the acquisition and retention of a non-spatial reference memory task in BXSB mice. Developmental Brain Research, 111, 291-293.
7.
Barth, P. G. (1987). Disorders of neuronal migration. Canadian Journal of Neurological Science, 14, 1-16.
8.
Beatty, W. (1992). Gonadal hormones and sex differences in non-reproductive behaviors. In A. A. Gerall, H. Moltz, & I. L. Ward (Eds.), Handbook of behavioral neurobiology (Vol. 11, pp. 85-128). New York: Plenum.
9.
Beitchman, J. H., Adlaf, E. M., Douglas, L., Atkinson, L., Young, A., Johnson, C. J., et al. (2001). Comorbidity of psychiatric and substance use disorders in late adolescence: A cluster analytic approach. American Journal of Drug & Alcohol Abuse, 27(3), 421-440.
10.
Beitchman, J. H., Nair, R., Clegg, M., Ferguson, B., & Patel, P. G. (1986). Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in children with speech and language disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 25, 528-535.
11.
Belin, P., Zilbovicius, M., Crozier, S., Thivard, L., Fontaine, A., Masure, M. C., et al. (1998). Lateralization of speech and auditory temporal processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10, 536-540.
12.
Benasich, A. A., Curtiss, S., & Tallal, P. (1993). Language, learning, and behavioral disturbances in childhood: A longitudinal perspective. Journal of the American Academy of Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 32(3), 585-594.
13.
Benasich, A. A., & Leevers, H. J. (2002). Processing of rapidly presented auditory cues in infancy: Implications for later language development. In J. Fagana & H. Haynes (Eds.), Progress in infancy research (Vol. 3, pp. 245-288). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
14.
Benasich, A. A., & Tallal, P. (1996). Auditory temporal processing thresholds, habituation and recognition memory over the first year. Infant Behavior and Development, 19, 339-357.
15.
Benasich, A. A., & Tallal, P. (2002). Infant discrimination of rapid auditory cues predicts later language impairment. Behavioural Brain Research, 136, 31-49.
16.
Best, C. T. (1984). Discovering the messages in the medium: Speech and the prelinguistic infant. In H. E. Fitzgerald, B. Lester, & M. Yogman (Eds.), Advances in pediatric psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 97-145). New York: Plenum.
17.
Binder, J. R., Frost, J. A., Hammeke, T. A., Bellgowan, P.S.F., Springer, J. A., Kaufman, J. N., et al. (2000). Human temporal lobe activation by speech and non-speech sounds. Cerebral Cortex, 10, 512-528.
18.
Bishop, D. V. M., Carlyon, R. P., Deeks, J. M., & Bishop, S. J. (1999). Auditory temporal processing impairment: Neither necessary nor sufficient for causing language impairment in children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 42, 1295-1310.
19.
Boehm, G.W., Sherman, G.F., Hoplight, B.J., Hyde, L.A., Waters, N. S., Bradway, D. M., et al. (1996). Learning and memory in the autoimmune BXSB mouse: Effects of neocortical ectopias and environmental enrichment. Brain Research, 726, 11-22.
20.
Boehm, G. W., Sherman, G. F., Rosen, G. D., Galaburda, A. M., & Denenberg, V. H. (1996). Neocortical ectopias in BXSB mice: Effects upon reference and working memory systems. Cerebral Cortex, 6, 696-700.
21.
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. (1983). Categorizing sounds and learning to read—A causal connection. Nature, 301, 419-421.
22.
Brady, S., Shankweiler, D., & Mann, V. (1983). Speech perception and memory coding in relation to reading ability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychiatry, 35, 345-367.
23.
Breedlove, S. M. (1992). Sexual differentiation of the brain and behavior. In J. B. Becker, S. M. Breedlove, & D. Crews (Eds.), Behavioral endocrinology (pp. 39-68). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
24.
Breier, J.I., Gray, L., Fletcher, J.M., Diehl, R.L., Klaas, P., Foorman, B. R., et al. (2001). Perception of voice and tone onset time continua in children with dyslexia with and without Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 80, 245-270.
25.
Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and communication. New York: Pergamon.
26.
Buonomano, D. V., & Merzenich, M. M. (1998). Cortical plasticity: From synapses to maps. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 21, 149-186.
27.
Catts, H. W. (1993). The relationship between speech-language impairments and reading disabilities. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36, 948-958.
28.
Chess, S., & Rosenberg, M. (1974). Clinical differentiation among children with initial language complaints. Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, 4(2), 99-109.
29.
Chomsky, N. (1968). Language and mind. NewYork: Harcourt, Brace & World.
30.
Clark, A. S., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1989). Gonadal hormones influence the emergence of cortical function in nonhuman primates. Behavioral Neuroscience, 103, 1287-1295.
31.
Clark, M. G., Sherman, G. F., Bimonte, H. A., & Fitch, R. H. (2000). Perceptual auditory gap detection deficits in ectopic male BXSB mice. NeuroReport, 11, 693-696.
32.
Clark, M. G., Tallal, P., Rosen, G. D., Peiffer, A. M., & Fitch, R. H. (2000). Impaired perception of speech stimuli in rats with cerebrocortical microgyria. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts, 30, 10.
33.
Clark, M., Rosen, G., Tallal, P., & Fitch, R. H. (2000a). Impaired processing of complex auditory stimuli in rats with induced cerebro-cortical microgyria. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 828-839.
34.
Clark, M., Rosen, G., Tallal, P., & Fitch, R. H. (2000b). Impaired two-tone processing at rapid rates in male rats with induced microgyria. Brain Research, 871, 94-97.
35.
Cowell, P., Jernigan, T., Denenberg, V., & Tallal, P. (1995). Language and learning impairment and prenatal risk: An MRI study of the corpus callosum and cerebral volume. Journal of Medical Speech-Language Pathology, 3(1), 1-13.
36.
Denenberg, V. H., Sherman, G. F., Schrott, L. M., Rosen, G. D., & Galaburda, A. M. (1991). Spatial learning, discrimination learning, paw preference and neocortial ectopias in two stains of auto immune mice. Brain Research, 562, 98-104.
37.
Denenberg, V. H., Sherman, G., Schrott, L. M., Waters, N. S., Boehm, G. W., Galaburda, A. M., et al. (1996). Effects of embryo transfer and cortical ectopias upon the behavior of BXSB-Yaa and BXSB-Yaa+ mice. Developmental Brain Research, 93, 100-108.
38.
Downie, A. L. S., Jakobson, L. S., Frisk, V., & Ushycky, I. (2002) Auditory temporal processing deficits in children with periventricular brain injury. Brain and Language, 80, 208-225.
39.
Dvorak, K., & Feit, J. (1977). Migration of neuroblasts through partial necrosis of the cerebral cortex in newborn rats—Contribution to the problems of morphological development and developmental period of cerebral microgyria. Acta Neuropathologica (Berlin), 38, 203-212.
40.
Dvorak, K., Feit, J., & Jurnkov, Z. (1978). Experimentally induced focal microgyria and status verrucosus deform is in rats—Pathogenesis and interrelation histological and autoradiographical study. Acta Neuropathologica (Berlin), 44, 121-129.
41.
Eimas, P. D., Siqueland, E. R., Jusczyk, P., & Vigorito, J. (1971). Speech perception in infants. Science, 171(968), 303-306.
42.
Farmer, M. E., & Klein, R. M. (1995). The evidence for a temporal processing deficit linked to dyslexia: A review. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 2(4), 460-493.
43.
Fiez, J. A., Raichle, M. E., Miezin, F. M., Petersen, S. E., Tallal, P., & Katz, W. F. (1995). Pet studies of auditory and phonological processing: Effects of stimulus characteristics and task demands. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 7(3), 357-375.
44.
Finkel, L. H., & Edelman, G. M. (1985). Interaction of synaptic modification rules within populations of neurons. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 82(4), 1291-1295.
45.
Finucci, J. M., & Childs, B. (1983). Dyslexia: Family studies. In C. Ludlow & J. A. Cooper (Eds.), Genetic aspects of speech and language disorders. New York: Academic Press.
46.
Fitch, R. H., Brown, C., O'Connor, K., & Tallal, P. (1993). Functional lateralization for auditory temporal processing in male and female rats. Behavioral Neuroscience, 107, 844-850.
47.
Fitch, R. H., Brown, C., Tallal, P., & Rosen, G. (1997). Effects of sex and MK-801 on auditory processing deficits associated with developmental microgyric lesions in rats. Behavioral Neuroscience, 111, 404-412.
48.
Fitch, R. H., Miller, S., & Tallal, P. (1997). Neurobiology of speech perception. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 20, 331-353.
49.
Fitch, R. H., Read, H. L., & Benasich, A. A. (2000). Neurophysiology of speech perception in normal and impaired systems. In A. F. Jahn & J. Santos-Sachi (Eds.), Physiology of the ear (pp. 651-671). San Diego, CA: Singular Publishing.
50.
Fitch, R. H., Tallal, P., Brown, C., Galaburda, A., & Rosen, G. (1994). Induced microgyria and auditory temporal processing in rats: A model for language impairment? Cerebral Cortex, 4, 260-270.
51.
Flannery, K. A., & Liederman, J. (1996). A re-examination of the sex ratios of families with a neurodevelopmentally disordered child. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 621-623.
52.
Flannery, K. A., Liederman, J., Daly, L., & Schultz, J. (2000). Male prevalence for reading disability is found in a large sample of Black and White children free from ascertainment bias. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 6, 433-442.
53.
Flax, J. F., Realpe-Bonilla, T., Hirsch, L. S., Brzustowicz, L. M., Bartlett, C., & Tallal, P. (2003). Specific language impairment in families: Evidence for co-occurence with reading impairments. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research.
54.
Fodor, J. (1983). The modularity of the mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
55.
Frenkel, M., Sherman, G. F., Bashan, K. A., Galaburda, A. M., & LoTurco, J. (2000). Neocortical ectopias are associated with attenuated neurophysiological responses to rapidly changing auditory stimuli. Neuroreport, 11, 575-579.
56.
Gabel, L., & LoTurco, J. J. (2001). Electrophysiological and morphological characterization of neurons within neocortical ectopias. Journal of Neurophysiology, 85, 495-505.
57.
Galaburda, A. M. (1994). Developmental dyslexia and animal studies: At the interface between cognition and neurology. Cognition, 50, 133-149.
58.
Galaburda, A. M., & Kemper, T. L. (1979). Cytoarchitectonic abnormalities in developmental dyslexia; a case study. Annals of Neurology, 6, 94-100.
59.
Galaburda, A. M., Menard, M. T., Rosen, G. D., & Livingstone, M. S. (1994). Evidence for aberrant auditory anatomy in developmental dyslexia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 91, 8010-8013.
60.
Galaburda, A. M., Sherman, G. F., Rosen, G. D., Aboitiz, F., & Geschwind, N. (1985). Developmental dyslexia: Four consecutive cases with cortical anomalies. Annals of Neurology, 18, 222-233.
61.
Geschwind, N., & Galaburda, A. (1985). Cerebral lateralization: Biological mechanisms, associations, and pathology. Pts. I, II, and III. Archives of Neurology, 42, 428-654.
62.
Giraud, A. L., & Price, C. J. (2001). The constraints functional neuroimaging places on classical models of auditory word processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 13, 754-765.
63.
Goldman-Rakic, P. S., & Rakic, P. (1978). Prenatal removal of the frontal association cortex in the fetal rhesus monkey: Anatomical and functional consequences in postnatal life. Brain Research, 152, 451-485.
64.
Golestani, N., Paus, T., & Zatorre, R. (2002). Anatomical correlates of learning novel speech sounds. Neuron, 35, 997-1010.
65.
Grinnell, S. W., Scott-Hartnett, D., & Glassier, J. L. (1983). Letter to the editor. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 22, 580-581.
66.
Gualtieri, T., & Hicks, R. (1985). An immunoreactive theory of selective male affliction. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 8, 427-441.
67.
Habib, M. (2000). The neurological basis of developmental dyslexia: An overview and working hypothesis. Brain, 123(12), 2373-2399.
68.
Hagman, J., Wood, F., Buchsbaum, M., Flowers, L., Katz, W., & Tallal, P. (1992). Cerebral brain metabolism in adult dyslexics assessed with positron emission tomography during performance of an auditory task. Archives of Neurology, 49, 734-739.
69.
Hall, S. L., & Moats, L. (1999). Straight talk about reading: How parents can make a difference during the early years. Chicago: Contemporary Books.
70.
Hari, R., & Kiesla, P. (1996). Deficit of temporal auditory processing in dyslexic adults. Neuroscience Letters, 205, 138-140.
71.
Hari, R., & Renvall, H. (2001). Impaired processing of rapid stimulus sequences in dyslexia. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5(12), 525-532.
72.
Hari, R., Vlata, M., & Uutela, K. (1999). Prolonged attentional dwell time in dyslexic adults. Neuroscience Letters, 271, 202-204.
73.
Hebb, D. O. (1949). The organization of behavior: A neuropsychological theory. New York: John Wiley.
74.
Herman, A., Galaburda, A., Fitch, R. H., Carter, A. R., & Rosen, G. (1997). Cerebral microgyria, thalamic cell size and auditory temporal processing in male and female rats. Cerebral Cortex, 7, 453-464.
75.
Hoffman, H. S., & Ison, J. R. (1980). Reflex modification in the domain of startle: I. Some empirical findings and their implications for how the nervous system processes sensory input. Psychological Review, 87(2), 175-189.
76.
Humphreys, P., Kaufmann, W. E., & Galaburda, A. M. (1990). Developmental dyslexia in women: Neuropathological findings in three cases. Annals of Neurology, 28, 727-738.
77.
Humphreys, P., Rosen, G. D., Press, D. M., Sherman, G. F., & Galaburda, A. M. (1991). Freezing lesions of the newborn rat brain: A model for cerebrocortical microgyria. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 50, 145-160.
78.
Hyde, L. A., Sherman, G. F., Hoplight, B. J., & Denenberg, V. H. (2000a). Non-spatial water radial-arm maze learning in mice. Brain Research, 863, 151-159.
79.
Hyde, L. A., Sherman, G. F., Hoplight, B. J., & Denenberg, V. H. (2000b). Working memory deficits in BXSB mice with neocortical ectopias. Physiology & Behavior, 70, 1-5.
80.
Ison, J. R. (1982). Temporal acuity in auditory function in the rat: Reflex inhibition by brief gaps in noise. Journal of Comparative Physiological Psychology, 96(6), 945-954.
81.
Ison, J. R., & Hoffman, H. S. (1983). Reflex modification in the domain of startle: II. The anomalous history of a robust and ubiquitous phenomenon. Psychological Bulletin, 94(1), 3-17.
82.
Ison, J. R., & Pinckney, L. A. (1983). Reflex inhibition in humans: Sensitivity to brief silent periods in white noise. Perception and Psychophysics, 34(1), 84-88.
83.
Ison, J. R., O'Connor, K., Bowen, G. P., & Bocirnea, A. (1991). Temporal resolution of gaps in noise by the rat is lost with functional decortication. Behavioral Neuroscience, 105(1), 33-40.
84.
Jacobs, K. M., Gutnick, M. J., & Prince, D. A. (1996). Hyper-excitability in a model of cortical maldevelopment. Cerebral Cortex, 6, 514-523.
85.
Jacobs, K. M., Morgensen, M., Warren, E., & Prince, D. A. (1999). Focal epileptogenesis in a rat model of polymicrogyria. Journal of Neurophysiology, 81, 159-173.
86.
Jernigan, T., Hesselink, J. R., Sowell, E., & Tallal, P. (1991). Cerebral structure on Magnetic Resonance Imaging in language- and learning-impaired children. Archives of Neurology, 48, 539-545.
87.
Kaas, J. H., & Hackett, T. A. (1999). What and where processing in auditory cortex. Nature Neuroscience, 2, 1045-1047.
88.
Kaas, J. H., & Hackett, T. A. (2000). Subdivisions of auditory cortex and processing stream in primates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 97, 11793-11799.
89.
Karni, A., Meyer, G., Jezzard, P., Adams, M. M., Turner, R., & Ungerleider, L. G. (1995). Functional MRI evidence for adult motor cortex plasticity during motor skill learning. Nature377(14), 155-158.
90.
Karni, A., & Sagi, D. (1991). Where practice makes perfect in texture discrimination: Evidence for primary visual cortical plasticity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 88, 4966-4970.
91.
Kilgard, M. P., & Merzenich, M. M. (1998). Plasticity of temporal information processing in the primary auditory cortex. Nature Neuroscience, 1(8), 727-731.
92.
Kimura, D. (1967). Functional asymmetry of the brain in dichotic listening. Cortex, 3, 163-178.
93.
Kimura, D., & Harshman, R. (1984). Sex differences in brain organization for verbal and non-verbal functions. In G. J. DeVrieset al. (Eds.), Progress in brain research (Vol. 61). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
94.
Klingberg, T., Hedehus, M., Temple, E., Salz, T., Gabrieli, J. D. E., Moseley, M. E., et al. (2000). Microstructure of temporo-parietal white matter as a basis for reading ability: Evidence from diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging. Neuron, 25, 493-500.
95.
Kolb, B., & Cioe, J. (1996). Sex-related differences in cortical function after medial frontal lesions in rats. Behavioral Neuroscience, 110, 1271-1281.
96.
Kraus, N., McGee, T. J., Carrell, T. D., Zecker, S. G., Nicol, T. G., & Koch, D. B. (1996). Auditory neurophysiologic responses and discrimination deficits in children with learning problems. Science, 273, 971-973.
97.
Kraus, N., McGee, T., Littman, T., Nicol, T., & King, C. (1994). Nonprimary auditory thalamic representation of acoustic change. Journal of Neurophysiology, 72(3), 1270-1277.
98.
Kuhl, P. K., Williams, K. A., Lacerda, F., Stevens, K. N., & Lindblom, B. (1992). Linguistic experience alters phonetic perception in infants by 6 months of age. Science, 255, 606-608.
99.
Kulynych, J. J., Vladar, K., Jones, D. W., & Weinberger, D. R. (1994). Gender differences in the normal lateralization of the supratemporal cortex: MRI surface-rendering morphometry of Heschls gyrus and the planum temporale. Cerebral Cortex, 4, 107-118.
100.
Lambe, E. (1999) Dyslexia, gender, and brain imaging. Neuropsychologia, 37, 521-536.
101.
Larsen, J. P., Hoien, T., Lundberg, I., & Odegaard, H. (1990). MRI evaluation of the size and symmetry of the plamun temporale in adolescents with developmental dyslexia. Brain and Language, 39, 289-301.
102.
Lehmkuhle, S., Garzia, R. P., Turner, L., Hash, T., & Baro, J. A. (1993). A defective visual pathway in children with reading disability. New England Journal of Medicine, 328, 989-996.
103.
Leitner, D. S., Hammond, G. R., Springer, C. P., Ingham, K. M., Mekilo, A. M., Bodison, P. R., et al. (1993). Parameters affecting gap detection in the rat. Perception and Psychophysics, 54(3), 395-405.
104.
Leonard, C. M., Voeller, K. K. S., Lombardino, L. J., Morris, M. K., Hynd, G. W., Alexander, A. W., et al. (1993). Anomalous cerebral structure in dyslexia revealed with magnetic resonance imaging. Archives of Neurology, 50, 461-469.
105.
Leonard, L. B. (1998). Children with specific language impairment. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
106.
Leppänen, P. H. T., & Lyytinen, H. (1997). Auditory event-related potentials in the study of developmental language-related disorders. Audiology and Neuro-Otology, 2, 308-340.
107.
Leppänen, P. H. T., Pihko, E., Eklund, K. M., & Lyytinen, H. (1999). Cortical responses of infants with and without a genetic risk for dyslexia: II. Group effects. NeuroReport, 969-973.
108.
Liberman, A. M., Cooper, F. S., Shankweiler, D. P., & Kennedy, M. S. (1967). Psychological review perception of the speech code. Psychological Review, 74(6), 431-461.
109.
Liederman, J., & Flannery, K. A. (1995). The sex ratios of families with a neurodevelopmentally disordered child. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 511-517.
110.
Livingstone, M. S., Rosen, G. D., Drislane, F. W., & Galaburda, A. M. (1991). Physiological and anatomical evidence for a magnocellular defect in developmental dyslexia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 88, 7943-7947.
111.
Lovegrove, W., Garzia, R., & Nicholson, S. (1990). Experimental evidence for a transient system deficit in specific reading disability. Journal of the American Optometric Association, 2, 137-146.
112.
Mann, V. A., & Liberman, I. Y. (1984). Phonological awareness and verbal short-term memory. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 592-599.
113.
McAnally, K. I., & Stein, J. F. (1996). Auditory temporal coding in dyslexia. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 263, 961-965.
114.
McAnally, K. I., & Stein, J. F. (1997). Scalp potentials evoked by amplitude modulated tones in dyslexia. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 40, 939-945.
115.
McCrosky, R., & Kidder, H. (1980). Auditory fusion among learning disabled, reading disabled and normal children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 13, 69-76.
116.
McGlone, J. (1980). Sex differences in human brain asymmetry: A critical review. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3, 215-263.
117.
Merzenich, M. M., & Jenkins, W. M. (1995). Cortical plasticity, learning, and learning dysfunction. In B. Julesz & I. Kovacs (Eds.), Maturational windows and adult cortical plasticity (Vol. 23, pp. 247-271). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
118.
Merzenich, M. M., Tallal, P., Peterson, B., Miller, S. L., & Jenkins, W. M. (1999). Some neurological principles relevant to the origins of and the cortical plasticity based remediation of language learning impairments. In J. Grafman (Ed.), Neuroplasticity: Building a bridge from the laboratory to the clinic (pp. 169-187). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
119.
Merzenich, M., Jenkins, W. M., Johnston, P., Schreiner, C., Miller, S. L., & Tallal, P. (1996). Temporal processing deficits of language-learning impaired children ameliorated by training. Science, 271, 77-81.
120.
Miller, B., Chou, L., & Finlay, B. L. (1993). The early development of thalamocortical and corticothalamic projections. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 335, 16-41.
121.
Mody, M., Studdert-Kennedy, M., & Brady, S. (1997). Speech perception in deficits in poor readers: Auditory processing or phonological coding? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 64(2), 199-231.
122.
Molfese, D. L., & Molfese, V. J. (1997). Discrimination of language skills at five years of age using event-related potentials recorded at birth. Developmental Neuropsychology, 13, 135-156.
123.
Nagarajan, S. S., Wang, X., Merzenich, M. M., Schreiner, C. E., Johnston, P., Jenkins, W. M., et al. (1998). Speech modifications algorithms used for training language learning-impaired children. Transactions on Rehabilitation Engineering, 6, 257-268.
124.
Nagarajan, S., Mahncke, H., Salz, T., Tallal, P., Roberts, T., & Merzenich, M. M. (1999). Cortical auditory signal processing in poor-reading adults. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences, 96, 6483-6488.
125.
Neville, H., Coffey, S., Holcomb, P., & Tallal, P. (1993). The neurobiology of sensory and language processing in language-impaired children. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 5, 235-253.
126.
Nicolson, R., Fawcett, A. J., & Dean, P. (2001). Dyslexia, development and the cerebellum. Trends in Neurosciences, 24, 515-516.
127.
Nicolson, R., Lenane, M., Singaracharlu, S., Malaspina, D., Giedd, J. N., Hamburger, S. D., et al. (2000). Premorbid speech and language impairments in childhood-onset schizophrenia: Association with risk factors. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(5), 794-800.
128.
Niels, J., & Aram, D. (1986). Handedness and sex of children with developmental language disorders. Brain and Language, 28, 53-65.
129.
Paulesu, E., Frith, U., Snowling, M., Gallagher, A., Morton, J., Frackowiak, R. S. J., et al. (1996). Is developmental dyslexia a disconnection syndrome. Brain, 119, 143-157.
130.
Peiffer, A. M., Rosen, G. D., & Fitch, R. H. (2003). Sex differences in auditory processing deficits in ectopic BXSB/MPJ mice. NeuroReport, 13, 2277-2280.
131.
Peiffer, A. M., Dunleavy, C. K., Frenkel, M., Gabel, L. A., LoTurco, J. J., Rosen, G. D., et al. (2001). Impaired discrimination of variable duration embedded tones in adult male ectopic NZB mice. NeuroReport, 12(13), 2875-2879.
132.
Pihko, E., Leppnen, P. H. T., Eklund, K. M., Cheour, M., Guttorm, T. K., & Lyytinen, H. (1999). Cortical responses of infants with and without a genetic risk for dyslexia: I. Age effects. NeuroReport, 10, 901-905.
133.
Pinker, S. (1997). Words and rules in the human brain. Nature, 387(5), 547-548.
134.
Poldrack, R. A., Protopapas, A., Nagarajan, S., Tallal, P., Merzenich, M. M., Temple, E., et al. (1998, March). Auditory processing of temporally compressed speech: An fMRI study. Paper presented at The Cognitive Neuroscience Society Meeting, San Francisco, CA.
135.
Ramus, F. (2003). Developmental dyslexia: Specific phonological deficit or general sensorimotor function? Current Opinions in Neurobiology, 13, 212-218.
136.
Ramus, F., Rosen, S., Dakin, S. C., Day, B. L., Castellote, J. M., White, S., et al. (2003). Theories of developmental dyslexia: Insights from a multiple case study of dyslexic adults. Brain, 126, 841-865.
137.
Rapin, I. (1978). Consequences of congenital hearing loss—A long term view. Journal of Otolaryngology, 7(6), 473-483.
138.
Rauschecker, J. P., & Tian, B. (2000). Mechanisms and streams for processing of what and where in auditory cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 97, 11800-11806.
139.
Raz, S., Lauterbach, M.D., Hopkins, T.L., Glogowski, B.K., & Porter, C. L. (1995). A female advantage in cognitive recovery from early cerebral insult. Developmental Psychology, 31, 958-966.
140.
Recanzone, G. H., Schreiner, C. E., & Merzenich, M. M. (1993). Plasticity in the frequency representation of primary auditory cortex following discrimination training in adult owl monkeys. Journal of Neuroscience, 13, 87-104.
141.
Reed, M. A. (1989). Speech perception and the discrimination of brief auditory cues in reading disabled children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 48, 270-292.
142.
Rissman, M., Curtiss, S., & Tallal, P. (1990). School placement outcomes of young language impaired children. Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology, 14, 49-58.
143.
Robin, D., Tomblin, J. B., & Kearney, A. (1989). Auditory temporal pattern learning in children with severe speech and language impairment. Brain and Language, 36, 604-613.
144.
Romanski, L.M., Tian, B., Fritz, J., Mishkin, M., Goldman-Rakic, P.S., & Rauschecker, J. P. (1999). Dual streams of auditory afferents target multiple domains in the primate prefrontal cortex. Nature Neuroscience, 2, 1131-1136.
145.
Roof, R., Duvdevani, R., & Stein, D. (1993). Gender influences outcome of brain injury: Progesterone plays a protective role. Brain Research, 607, 333-336.
146.
Rosen, G. D., Burstein, D., & Galaburda, A. (2000). Changes in efferent and afferent connectivity in rats with induced cerebrocortical microgyria. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 418, 423-440.
147.
Rosen, G. D., Galaburda, A. M., & Sherman, G. F. (1989). Cerebroxscortical microdysgenesis with anomalous callosal connections: A case study in the rat. International Journal of Neuroscience, 47, 237-247.
148.
Rosen, G. D., Herman, A. E., & Galaburda, A. M. (1999). Sex differences in the effects of early neocortical injury on neuronal size distribution of the medial geniculate nucleus in the rat are mediated by perinatal gonadal steroids. Cerebral Cortex, 9, 27-34.
149.
Rosen, G. D., Press, D. M., Sherman, G. F., & Galaburda, A. M. (1992). The development of induced cerebrocortical microgyria in the rat. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 51, 601-611.
150.
Rosen, G. D., Sherman, G. F., Richman, J. M., Stone, L. V., & Galaburda, A. M. (1992). Induction of molecular layer ectopias by puncture wounds in newborn rats and mice. Developmental Brain Research, 67, 285-291.
151.
Rumsey, J. M., Andreason, P., Zametkin, A. J., Aquino, T., King, A. C., Hamburger, S. D., et al. (1992). Failure to activate the left temporoparietal cortex in dyslexia. Archives of Neurology, 49, 527-534.
152.
Rumsey, J. M., Nace, K., Donohue, B., Wise, D., Maisog, J. M., & Andreason, P. (1997). A positron emission tomographic study of impaired word recognition and phonological processing in dyslexic men. Archives of Neurology, 54, 562-573.
153.
Schneider, G. E. (1981). Early lesions and abnormal neuronal connections. Trends in Neuroscience, 4, 187-192.
154.
Schrott, L.M., Denenberg, V.H., Sherman, G.F., Waters, N.S., Rosen, G. D., & Galaburda, A. M. (1992). Environmental enrichment, neocortical ectopias and behavior in the autoimmune NZB mouse. Developmental Brain Research, 67, 85-93.
155.
Schulte-Korne, G., Deimel, W., Bartling, J., & Remschmidt, H. (1998). Auditory processing and dyslexia: Evidence for a specific speech processing deficit. NeuroReport, 9(2), 337-340.
156.
Schwartz, J., & Tallal, P. (1980). Rate of acoustic change may underlie hemispheric specialization for speech perception. Science, 207(21), 1380-1381.
157.
Scott, S. K., Blank, S. C., Rosen, S., & Wise, R. J. S. (2000). Identification of a pathway for intelligible speech in the left temporal lobe. Brain, 123, 2400-2406.
158.
Scott, S. K., & Johnsrude, I. S. (2003). The neuroanatomical and functional organization of speech perception. Trends in Neurosciences26, 100-107.
159.
Shaywitz, B. A., Shaywitz, S. E., Pugh, K. R., Constable, R. T., Skudlarski, P., Fulbright, R. K., et al. (1995). Sex differences in the functional organization of the brain for language. Nature, 373, 607-609.
160.
Shaywitz, S. E., Shaywitz, B. A., Fletcher, J. M., & Escobar, M. D. (1990). Prevalence of reading disability in boys and girls. Journal of the American Medical Association, 264, 998-1002.
161.
Shaywitz, S. E., Shaywitz, B. A., Pugh, K. R., Fulbright, R. K., Constable, R. T., Mencl, W. E., et al. (1998). Functional disruption in the organization of the brain for reading in dyslexia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA, 95(5), 2636-2641.
162.
Sherman, G. F., Galaburda, A. M., Behan, P. O., & Rosen, G. D. (1987). Neuroanatomical anomalies in autoimmune mice. Acta Neuropathologica (Berlin), 74, 239-242.
163.
Sherman, G. F., Galaburda, A. M., & Geschwind, N. (1985). Cortical anomalies in brains of New Zealand mice: A neuropathologic model of dyslexia? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 82, 8072-8074.
164.
Sherman, G.F., Rosen, G.D., Stone, L.V., Press, D.M., & Galaburda, A. M. (1992). The organization of radial glial fibers in spontaneous neocortical ectopias of newborn New-Zealand black mice. Developmental Brain Research, 67, 279-283.
165.
Siegel, L. S., & Ryan, E. B. (1989). The development of working memory in normally achieving and sub-types of learning disabled children. Child Development, 60, 973-980.
166.
Slaghuis, W. L., Lovegrove, W. J., & Freestun, J. (1992). Letter recognition in peripheral vision and metacontrast masking in dyslexic and normal readers. Clinical Vision Science, 7, 53-65.
167.
Snow, C. E., Burns, S. M., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
168.
Stark, R. E., & Tallal, P. (1979). Analysis of stop consonant production errors in developmentally dysphasic children. Acoustical Society of America, 66, 1703-1712.
169.
Stark, R. E., & Tallal, P. (1988). Language, speech, and reading disorders in children: Neuropsychological studies. Boston: Little, Brown.
170.
Stein, J. (1993). Dyslexia-impaired temporal information processing? Annals New York Academy of Sciences, 682, 83-86.
171.
Stein, J. (2001). The magnocellular theory of developmental dyslexia. Dyslexia, 7, 12-36.
172.
Stein, J., & Talcott, J. (1999). Impaired neuronal timing in developmental dyslexia—The magnocellular hypothesis. Dyslexia, 5, 59-77.
173.
Steinschneider, M., Volkov, I.O., Noh, M.D., Garell, P.C., & Howard, M. A., II. (1999). Temporal encoding of the voice onset time phonetic parameter by field potentials recorded directly from human auditory cortex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 82, 2346-2357.
174.
Swanson, H. L. (1992). The modifiability and generality of working memory in skilled and less-skilled readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 473-488.
175.
Swanson, H. L. (1994). Short-term memory and working memory: Do both contribute to our understanding of academic achievement in children and adults with learning disabilities? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27, 34-50.
176.
Swanson, H. L., Cochran, K., & Ewars, C. (1989). Working memory and reading disabilities. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 17, 745-746.
177.
Talcott, J.B., Witton, C., McClean, M., Hansen, P.C., Rees, A., Green, G. G. R., et al. (2000). Dynamic sensory sensitivity and childrens word decoding skills. Proceeding of the National Academy of Science USA, 97, 2952-2957.
178.
Tallal, P. (1980). Auditory temporal perception, phonics and reading disabilities in children. Brain and Language, 9, 182-198.
179.
Tallal, P., Merzenich, M. M., Miller, S., & Jenkins, W. (1998). Language learning impairments: Integrating basic science, technology, and remediation. Experimental Brain Research, 123, 210-219.
180.
Tallal, P., Miller, S. L., Bedi, G., Byma, G., Wang, X., Nagarajan, S. S., et al. (1996). Language comprehension in language-learning impaired children improved with acoustically modified speech. Science, 271, 81-84.
181.
Tallal, P., Miller, S., & Fitch, R. H. (1993). Neurobiological basis of speech: A case for the preeminence of temporal processing. In P. Tallal, A. M. Galaburda, R. R. Llins, & C. Von Euler (Eds.), Temporal information processing in the nervous system: Special reference to dyslexia and dysphasia (Vol. 682, pp. 27-47). New York: New York Academy of Science.
182.
Tallal, P., & Piercy, M. (1973a). Defects of non-verbal auditory perception in children with developmental aphasia. Nature, 241, 468-469.
183.
Tallal, P., & Piercy, M. (1973b). Developmental aphasia: Impaired rate of non-verbal processing as a function of sensory modality. Neuropsychologia, 11, 389-398.
184.
Tallal, P., & Piercy, M. (1974). Developmental aphasia: Rate of auditory processing and selective impairment of consonant perception. Neuropsychologia, 12, 83-93.
185.
Tallal, P., & Piercy, M. (1975). Developmental aphasia: The perception of brief vowels and extended stop consonants.Neuropsychologia, 13, 69-74.
186.
Tallal, P., & Stark, R. (1981). Speech acoustic cue discrimination abilities of normally developing and language impaired children. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 69, 568-574.
187.
Tallal, P., Stark, R. E., & Mellits, D. (1985). The relationship between auditory temporal analysis and receptive language development: Evidence from studies of developmental language disorder. Neuropsychologia, 23(4), 527-534.
188.
Temple, E., Deutsch, G. K., Poldrack, R. A., Miller, S. L., Tallal, P., Merzenich, M. M., et al. (2003). Neural deficits in children with dyslexia ameliorated by behavioral remediation: Evidence from fMRI. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(5), 2860-2865.
189.
Temple, E., Poldrack, R. A., Protopapas, A., Nagarajan, S., Salz, T., Tallal, P., et al. (2000). Disruption of the neural response to rapid acoustic stimuli in dyslexia: Evidence from fMRI. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(25), 13907-13912.
190.
Thomas, J., Clark, M., Benasich, A. A., & Fitch, R. H. (2001, March). Developmental changes in gap detection thresholds in the rat. Paper presented at The Cognitive Neuroscience Society, San Francisco, CA.
191.
Tomblin, J. B., Records, N. L., Buckwalter, P., Zhang, X., Smith, E., & O'Brien, M. (1997). Prevalence of specific language impairment in kindergarten children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39, 1315-1320.
192.
Trehub, S. E., & Henderson, J. L. (1996). Temporal resolution in infancy and subsequent language development. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39(6), 1315-1320.
193.
Vellutino, F. R., & Scanlon, D. (1987). Phonological coding, phonological awareness, and reading ability: Evidence from a longitudinal and experimental study. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33, 312-363.
194.
Wecker, J., Ison, J., & Foss, J. (1985). Reflex modification as a test for sensory function. Neurobehavioral Toxicology and Teratology, 7, 733-738.
195.
Wise, R. J. S. (2003). Language systems in normal and aphasic human subjects: Functional imaging studies and inferences from animal studies. British Medical Bulletin, 65, 95-119.
196.
Wise, R. J. S., Scott, S. K., Blank, S. C., Mummery, C. J., Murphy, K.,& Warburton, E. A. (2001). Separate neural subsystems within Wernickes area. Brain, 124, 83-95.
197.
Witton, C., Talcott, J., Hansen, P., Richardson, A., Griffiths, T., Rees, A., et al. (1998). Sensitivity to dynamic auditory and visual stimuli predicts nonword reading ability in both dyslexic and normal readers. Current Biology, 8, 791-797.
198.
Wolf, M. (1986). Rapid alternating stimulus naming in developmental dyslexias. Brain and Language, 27, 360-379.
199.
Wood, F. B., Flowers, D. L., & Naylor, C. E. (1991). Cerebral laterality in functional neuroimaging. In F. L. Kitterle (Ed.), Cerebral laterality: Theory and research (pp. 103-116). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
200.
Wright, B. A., Bowen, R. W., & Zecker, S. G. (2000). Nonlinguistic perceptual deficits associated with reading and language disorders. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 10, 482-486.
201.
Wright, B.A., Lombardino, L. J., King, W. M., Puranik, C. S., Leonard, C. M., & Merzenich, M. M. (1997). Deficits in auditory temporal and spectral resolution in language-impaired children. Nature, 387, 176-178.
202.
Zatorre, R. J., Evans, A. C., Meyer, E., & Gjedde, A. (1992). Lateralization of phonetic and pitch discrimination in speech processing. Science, 256.
203.
Zatorre, R. J. (2003). Sound analysis in auditory cortex. Trends in Neurosciences, 26, 229-230.
