The author presents a selective and integrative overview of cur-rent research examining acute effects of abused drugs on aspects of behavioral control in humans. The review discusses the concept of behavioral control and reviews research models that examine inhibitory influences as a central mechanism of control. Evidence for drug-induced impairment of inhibitory mechanisms is reviewed from current neuroanatomical, neuropharmacological, and behavioral perspectives. Model-based laboratory assessments of behavioral control are described in terms of their application to behavioral pharmacology and evidence for alcohol and psychostimulant effects on basic inhibitory mechanisms is reviewed. Drug effects on inhibitory mechanisms are also discussed in terms of their relevance to higher-order cognitive and behavioral functions, and in relation to impulsive behaviors, such as drug abuse. The review concludes by identifying important drug-related phenomenon (e.g., drug tolerance, cue reactivity) that might also be studied in behavioral control frameworks in future research.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
2.
Arbuthnott, K. D. (1995). Inhibitory mechanisms in cognition: Phenomena and models. Current Psychology of Cognition, 14, 3-45.
3.
Baker, T. B., & Tiffany, S. T. (1985). Morphine tolerance as habituation. Psychological Review, 92, 78-108.
4.
Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 65-94.
5.
Bates, M. E., Bowden, S. C., & Barry, D. (2002). Neurocognitive impairment associated with alcohol use disorders: Implications for treatment. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10, 193-212.
6.
Beech, A. R., Powell, T. J., McWilliams, J., & Claridge, G. S. (1989). Evidence of reduced “cognitive inhibition” in schizophrenia. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 28, 110-116.
7.
Beech, A. R., Powell, T. J., McWilliams, J., & Claridge, G. S. (1990). The effect of a small dose of chlorpromazine on a measure of cognitive inhibition. Personality and Individual Differences, 11, 1141-1145.
8.
Beirness, D. J., & Vogel-Sprott, M. (1984). Alcohol tolerance in social drinkers: Operant and classical conditioning effects. Psychopharmacology, 84, 393-397.
9.
Bensley, L. S. (1991). Construct validity evidence for the interpretation of drinking restraint as a response conflict. Addictive Behaviors, 16, 139-150.
10.
Berger, B., Gaspar, P., & Verney, C. (1991). Dopaminergic innervation of cerebral cortex: Unexpected differences between rodents and primates. Trends in Neuroscience, 14, 21-27.
11.
Bertelson, P., & Tisseyre, F. (1969). Refractory period of c-reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 79, 122-128.
12.
Bickel, W. K., & Kelly, T. H. (1988). The relationship of stimulus control to the treatment of substance abuse. In B. A. Ray (Ed.), Learning factors in substance abuse (pp. 12-140). Washington, DC: U.S Government Printing Office.
13.
Bickel, W. K., & Marsch, L. A. (2001). Toward a behavioral economic understanding of drug dependence: Delay discounting processes. Addiction, 96, 73-86.
14.
Bickel, W. K., Odum, A. L., & Madden, G. J. (1999). Impulsivity and cigarette smoking: Delay discounting in current, never, and ex-smokers. Psychopharmacology, 146, 447-454.
15.
Bouton, M. E., & Swartzentruber, D. (1991). Sources of relapse after extinction in Pavlovian and instrumental learning. Clinical Psychology Review, 11, 123-140.
16.
Bubser, M., & Schmidt, W. J. (1990). 6-OHDA lesions of the rat prefrontal cortex increases locomotor activity, impairs acquisition of delayed alternation tasks, but does not affect uninterrupted tasks in the radial maze. Behavior and Brain Research, 37, 157-168.
17.
Caine, S. B. (1998). Neuroanatomical basis of the reinforcing stimulus effects of cocaine. In S. T. Higgins & J. L. Katz (Eds.), Cocaine abuse: Behavior, pharmacology, and clinical applications (pp. 21-50). New York: Academic Press.
18.
Chutuape, M. D., Mitchell, S. H., & de Wit, H. (1994). Ethanol preloads increase preference under concurrent random-ratio schedules in social drinkers. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 2, 310-318.
19.
Collins, R. L. (1993). Drinking restraint and risk for alcohol abuse. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 1, 44-54.
20.
De Jong, R. (1993). Multiple bottlenecks in overlapping task performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 19, 965-989.
21.
De Jong, R., Coles, M. G., Logan, G. D., & Gratton, G. (1989). In search of the point of no return: The control of response process. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 16, 164-182.
22.
de Wit, H. (1996). Priming effects with drugs and other reinforcers. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 4, 5-10.
23.
de Wit, H., Crean, J., & Richards, J. B. (2000). Effects of d-amphetamine and ethanol on a measure of behavioral inhibition in humans. Behavioral Neuroscience, 114, 830-837.
24.
de Wit, H., Enggasser, M. A., & Richards, J. B. (2002). Acute administration of d-amphetamine decreases impulsivity in healthy volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology, 27, 813-825.
25.
Demellweek, C., & Goudie, A. J. (1983). Behavioral tolerance to amphetamine and other psychostimulants: The case for considering behavioral mechanisms. Psychopharmacology, 80, 287-307.
26.
Dias, R., Robbins, T. W., Roberts, A. C. (1996). Primate analogue of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Effects of excitotoxic lesions of the prefrontal cortex in the marmoset. Behavioral Neuroscience, 110, 872-886.
27.
Drewe, E. A. (1975). Go-no go learning after frontal lobe lesions in humans. Cortex, 11, 8-16.
28.
Duncan, J. (1981). Directing attention in the visual field. Perception and Psychophysics, 30, 90-93.
29.
Easdon, C. M., & Vogel-Sprott, M. (2000). Alcohol and behavioral control: Impaired response inhibition and flexibility in social drinkers. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 8, 387-394.
30.
Eckardt, M. J., File, S. E., Gessa, G. L., Grant, K. A., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P. L., et al. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 22, 998-1040.
31.
Eikelboom, R., & Stewart, J. (1982). Conditioning of drug-induced physiological responses. Psychological Review, 89, 507-528.
32.
Evenden, J. L. (1999). Varieties of impulsivity. Psychopharmacology, 146, 348-361.
33.
Falk, J. L., & Feingold, D. A. (1987). Environmental and cultural factors in the behavioral action of drugs. In H. Y. Meltzer (Ed.), The third generation of progress (pp. 1503-1510). New York: Raven Press.
34.
Fillmore, M. T. (2001). Cognitive preoccupation with alcohol and binge drinking in college students: Alcohol-induced priming of the motivation to drink. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 15, 325-332.
35.
Fillmore, M. T. (2003). Alcohol tolerance in humans is enhanced by prior caffeine-antagonism of alcohol-induced impairment. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 11, 9-17.
36.
Fillmore, M. T., & Blackburn, J. (2002). Compensating for alcohol-induced impairment: Alcohol expectancies and behavioral disinhibition. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 63, 237-246.
37.
Fillmore, M. T., Carscadden, J., & Vogel-Sprott, M. (1998). Alcohol, cognitive impairment, and expectancies. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 59, 174-179.
38.
Fillmore, M. T., Dixon, M. J., & Schweizer, T. A. (2000a). Alcohol affects processing of ignored stimuli in a negative priming paradigm. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61, 571-578.
39.
Fillmore, M. T., Dixon, M. J., & Schweizer, T. A. (2000b). Differential effects of alcohol on responses to negatively- and positively-primed stimuli. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61, 872-880.
40.
Fillmore, M. T., & Rush, C. R. (2001). Alcohol effects on inhibitory and activational response strategies in the acquisition of alcohol and other reinforcers: Priming the motivation to drink. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 62, 646-656.
41.
Fillmore, M. T., & Rush, C. R. (2002). Impaired inhibitory control in chronic cocaine abusers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 66, 265-273.
42.
Fillmore, M. T., Rush, C. R., & Hays, L. (2002). Acute effects of oral cocaine on inhibitory control of behavior in humans. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 67, 157-167.
43.
Fillmore, M. T., Rush, C. R., & Marczinski, C. A. (2003). Effects of d-amphetamine on behavioral control in stimulant abusers: The role of prepotent response tendencies. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 71, 143-152.
44.
Fillmore, M. T. & Van Selst, M. (2002). Constraints on information processing under alcohol in the context of response execution and response suppression. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10, 417-424.
45.
Fillmore, M. T., & Vogel-Sprott, M. (1999). An alcohol model of impaired inhibitory control and its treatment in humans. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 7, 49-55.
46.
Fillmore, M. T., & Vogel-Sprott, M. (2000). Response inhibition under alcohol: Effects of cognitive and motivational conflict. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61, 239-246.
47.
Finn, P. R. (2002). Motivation, working memory, and decision making: A cognitive-motivational theory of personality vulnerability to alcoholism. Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews, 1, 183-205.
48.
Finn, P. R., Justus, A., Mazas, C., & Steinmetz, J. E. (1999). Working memory, executive processes and the effects of alcohol on go/no-go learning: Testing a model of behavioral regulation and impulsivity. Psychopharmacology 146, 146, 465-472.
49.
Fisher, B. (1998). Attention deficit disorder misdiagnosis: Approaching ADD from a brain-behavior/neuropsychological perspective for assessment and treatment. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
50.
Fowles, D. C. (1987). Application of a behavioral theory of motivation to the concepts of anxiety and impulsivity. Journal of Research in Personality, 21, 417-435.
51.
Fox, E. (1995). Negative priming from ignored distractors in visual selection: A review. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 2,145-173.
52.
Gerbing, D. W., Ahadi, S. A., & Patton, J. H. (1987). Toward a conceptualization of impulsivity: Components across the behavioral and self-report domains. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 22, 357-379.
53.
Giancola, P., & Tarter, R. (1999). Executive cognitive functioning and risk for substance abuse. Psychological Science, 10, 203-205.
54.
Goddard, M. J. (1999). The role of US signal value in contingency, drug conditioning, and learned helplessness. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 6, 412-423.
55.
Gray, J. A. (1976). The behavioral inhibition system: A possible substrate for anxiety. In M. P. Feldman&A. Broadhurst (Eds.), Theoretical and experimental bases of the behavior therapies (pp. 3-41). London: Wiley.
56.
Gray, J. A. (1977). Drug effects on fear and frustration. Possible limbic site of action of minor tranquilizers. In L. L. Iverson, S. D. Iverson, & S. H. Snyder (Eds.), Handbook of psychopharmacology (Vol. 8, pp. 433-529). New York: Plenum.
57.
Greenshaw, A. J., Baker, G. B., & Wishart, T. B. (1989). Dopamine receptor changes during chronic drug administration. In A. J. Goudie & M. W. Emmett-Oglesby (Eds.), Psychoactive drugs: Tolerance and sensitization (pp. 353-406). Clifton, NJ: Humana Press.
58.
Hackley, S. A., Schaffer, R., & Miller, J. O. (1990). Preparation for Donder's type B and C reaction tasks. Acta Psychologica, 74, 15-33.
59.
Hasher, L., Stoltzfus, E. R., Zacks, R. T., & Rypma, B. (1991). Age and inhibition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 17, 163-169.
60.
Hemple, C. G. (1966). Philosophy of natural science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
61.
Ho, M. Y., Mobini, S., Chiang, T. J., Bradshaw, C. M., & Szabadi, E. (1999). Theory and method in the quantitative analysis of “impulse choice” behaviour: Implications for psychopharmacology. Psychopharmacology, 146, 362-372.
62.
Hoffman, M. W., & Bill, P. L. A. (1992). The environmental dependency syndrome, imitation behaviour and utilisation behaviour as presenting symptoms of bilateral frontal lobeinfarction due to moyamoya disease. South African Medical Journal, 81, 271-273.
63.
Holloway, F. A. (1995). Low-dose alcohol effects on human behavior and performance. Alcohol, Drugs, and Driving, 11, 39-56.
64.
Houghton, G., & Tipper, S. (1994). A model of inhibitory mechanisms in selective attention. In D. Dagenbach & T. H. Carr (Eds.), Inhibitory processes in attention, memory, and language (pp. 53-112). New York: Academic Press.
65.
Jellinek, E. M. (1952). Current notes—Phases of alcohol addiction. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 13, 673-684.
66.
Jentsch, J. D., & Taylor, J. R. (1999). Impulsivity resulting from frontostriatal dysfunction in drug abuse: Implication for the control of behavior by reward-related stimuli. Psychopharmacology, 146, 373-390.
67.
Johnston, W. A., & Heinz, S. P. (1978). Flexibility and capacity demands of attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19, 503-524.
68.
Kalant, H. (1989). Drug tolerance and sensitization: A pharmacological overview. In A. J. Goudie & M. W. Emmett-Oglesby (Eds.), Psychoactive drugs: Tolerance and sensitization (pp. 547-577). Clifton, NJ: Humana Press.
69.
Kalant H., LeBlanc, A. E., & Gibbons, R. J. (1971). Tolerance to, and dependence on, some non-opiate psychotropic drugs. Pharmacological Reviews, 23, 135-191.
70.
Keller, M. (1972). On the loss of control phenomenon in alcoholism. British Journal of Addictions, 67, 153-166.
71.
Khantzian, E. (1985). The self-medication hypothesis of addictive disorders: Focus on heroin and cocaine dependence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 1259-1264.
72.
Kirby, K. N. (1997). Bidding on the future: Evidence against normative discounting of delayed rewards. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General Processes, 126, 54-70.
73.
Koelega, H. S. (1993). Stimulant drugs and vigilance performance: A review. Psychopharmacology, 111, 1-16.
74.
Koelega, H. S. (1995). Alcohol and vigilance performance: A review. Psychopharmacology, 118, 233-249.
75.
Koob, G. F., & Le Moal, M. (1997). Drug abuse: Hedonic homeostatic dysregulation. Science, 278, 52-58.
76.
Lane, S. D., Cherek, D. R., Dougherty, D. M., & Moeller, F. G. (1998). Laboratory measurement of adaptive behavior change in humans with a history of substance dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 51, 239-252.
77.
Laver, G. D., & Burke, D. M. (1993). Why do semantic priming effects increase in old age? A meta-analysis. Psychology and Aging, 8, 34-43.
78.
Logan, G. D. (1994). On the ability to inhibit thought and action: A user's guide to the stop-signal paradigm. In D. Dagenbach & T. H. Carr (Eds.), Inhibitory processes in attention, memory, and language (pp. 189-239). San Diego: Academic Press.
79.
Logan, G. D., & Cowan, W. B. (1984). On the ability to inhibit thought and action: A theory of an act of control. Psychological Review, 91, 295-327.
80.
Logan, G. D., Cowan, W. B., & Davis, K. A. (1984). On the ability to inhibit simple and choice reaction time responses: A model and a method. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 10, 276-291.
81.
Ludwig, A. M., Wikler, A., & Stark, L. H. (1974). The first drink: Psychobiological aspects of craving. Archives of General Psychiatry, 30, 539-547.
82.
Luria, A. R. (1964). The frontal lobes and the regulation of behavior. In J. M. Warren & K. Akert (Eds.), The frontal granular cortex and behavior (pp. 313-334). New York: McGraw-Hall.
83.
Lyvers, M. (2000). “Loss of control” in alcoholism and drug addiction: A neuroscientific interpretation. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 8, 225-249.
84.
Madden, G. J., Bickel, W. K., & Jacobs, E. A. (1999). Discounting of delayed rewards in opioid-dependent outpatients: Exponential or hyperbolic discounting functions. Journal of Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 7, 284-293.
85.
Malloy, P., Bihrle, A., Duffy, J., & Cimino, C. (1993). The orbitomedial frontal syndrome. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 8, 185-201.
86.
Marczinski, C. A., & Fillmore, M. T. (2003a). Dissociative antagonistic effects of caffeine on alcohol-induced impairment of behavioral control. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 11, 228-236.
87.
Marczinski, C. A., & Fillmore, M. T. (2003b). Pre-response cues reduce the impairing effects of alcohol on the execution and suppression of responses. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 9, 110-117.
88.
Marlatt, G. A., & Gordon, J. R. (1980). Determinants of relapse: Implications for the maintenance of behavior change. In P. O. Davidson & S. M. Davidson (Eds.), Behavioral medicine: Changing health life-styles (pp. 410-452). New York: Brunner-Mazel.
89.
May, C. P., Kane, M. J., & Hasher, L. (1995). Determinants of negative priming. Psychological Bulletin, 118, 35-54.
90.
Maylor, E. A., & Rabbitt, P. M. A. (1987). Effects of alcohol and practice on choice reaction time. Perception and Psychophysics, 42, 465-475.
91.
Maylor, E. A., Rabbitt, P. M., James, G. H., & Kerr, S. A. (1992). Effects of alcohol, practice, and task complexity on reaction time distributions. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 49(A), 119-139.
92.
Mazur, J. (1987). An adjusting procedure for studying delayed reinforcement. In M. Commons, J. Mazur, J. Nevin, & H. Rachlin (Eds.), The effect of delay and of intervening events on reinforcement value (pp. 55-73). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
93.
McClelland, J. L., & Rumelhart, D. E. (1981). An interactive activational model of context effects in letter perception: Part 1. An account of basic findings. Psychological Review, 88, 375-407.
94.
Miller, J., Schaffer, R., & Hackley, S. A. (1991). Effects of preliminary information in a go versus no-go task. Acta Psychologica, 76, 241-292.
95.
Mintzer, M. Z., & Griffiths, R. R. (1999). Triazolam and zolpidem: Effects on human memory and attentional processes. Psychopharmacology, 144, 8-19.
96.
Modell, J. G., Mountz, J. M., & Beresford, T. P. (1990). Basal ganglia/limbic striatal and thalamocortical in craving and loss of control in alcoholism. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 2, 123-144.
97.
Moskowitz, H., Burns, M. M., & Williams, A. F. (1985). Skills performance at low blood alcohol levels. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 46, 482-485.
98.
Mulvihill, L. E., Skilling, T. A., & Vogel-Sprott, M. (1997). Alcohol and the ability to inhibit behavior in men and women. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 58, 600-605.
99.
Murphy, B. A., Arnsten, A. F. T., Jentsch, J. D., & Roth, R. H. (1996). Dopamine and spatial working memory in rats and monkeys: Pharmacological reversal of stress-induced impairment. Journal of Neuroscience, 16, 7768-7775.
100.
Neill, W. T. (1977). Inhibition and facilitation processes in selective attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 3, 444-450.
101.
Neill, W. T. (1997). Episodic retrieval in negative priming and repetition priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 1291-1305.
102.
Neill, W. T., & Valdes, L. A. (1996). Facilitatory and inhibitory aspects of attention. In A. F. Kramer, M. G. H. Coles, & G. D. Logan (Eds.), Converging operations in the study of visual selective attention (pp. 77-106). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
103.
Niaura, R., Rohsenow, D.J., Binkoff, J.A., Monti, P.M., Pedraza, M., & Abrams, D. B. (1988). Relevance of cue reactivity to understanding alcohol and smoking relapse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 133-152.
104.
O'Brien, C. P. (1976). Experimental analysis of conditioning factors in human narcotic addiction. Pharmacological Reviews, 27, 533-543.
105.
Odum, A. L., Madden, G. J., Badger, G. J., & Bickel, W. K. (2000). Needle sharing in opioid-dependent outpatients: Psychological processes underlying risk. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 60, 259-266.
106.
O'Malley, S., Adamse, M., Heaton, R. K., & Gawin, F. H. (1992). Neuropsychological impairment in chronic cocaine abusers. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 18, 131-144.
107.
Oosterlaan, J., & Sergeant, J. A. (1996). Inhibition in ADHD, aggressive, and anxious children: A biologically based model of child psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 19-37.
108.
Oscar-Berman, M. (1978). The effects of dorso-lateral frontal and ventrolateral-orbital lesions on nonspatial test performance. Neuropsychologia, 16, 259-267.
109.
Pashler, H. (1994). Dual-Task interference in simple tasks: Data and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 220-244.
110.
Pashler, H., & Johnston, J. C. (1989). Chronometric evidence for central postponement in temporally overlapping tasks. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 41A, 19-45.
111.
Pashler, H., & Johnston, J. C. (1997). Attentional limitation in dual-task performance. In H. Pashler (Ed.), Attention (pp. 155-189). Hove, East Sussex: Taylor and Francis.
112.
Patterson, C. M., & Newman, J. P. (1993). Reflectivity and learning from aversive events: Toward a psychological mechanism for the syndromes of disinhibition. Psychological Review, 100, 716-736.
113.
Pernanen, K. (1976). Alcohol and crimes of violence. In B. Kiss in & H. Begleiter (Eds.), The biology of alcoholism: Vol. 4 Social aspects of alcoholism (pp. 351-444). New York: Plenum Press.
114.
Peterson, J. B., Rothfleisch, J., Zelazo, P. D., & Pihl, R. O. (1990). Acute alcohol intoxication and cognitive functioning. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 51, 114-136.
115.
Poulos, C. X., & Cappell, H. (1991). Homeostatic theory of drug tolerance: A general model of physiological adaptation. Psychological Review, 98, 390-408.
116.
Posner, M. I. (1980). Orienting of attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32, 3-25.
117.
Posner, M. I., & Snyder, C. R. (1975). Facilitation and inhibition in the processing of signals. In P. Rabbitt & S. Dornic (Eds.), Attention and Performance V (pp. 669-682). New York: Academic Press.
118.
Posner, M. I., Snyder, C. R., & Davidson, B. J. (1980). Attention and the detection of signals. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 109, 160-174.
119.
Quay, H. C. (1997). Inhibition and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 7-13.
120.
Roberts, A. C., DeSalvia, M. A., Wilkinson, L. S., Collins, P., Muir, J. L., Everitt, B. J., et al. (1994). 6-Hydroxydopamine lesions of the prefrontal cortex in monkeys enhance performance on an analogue of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Possible interactions with subcortical dopamine. Journal of Neuroscience, 14, 2531-2544.
121.
Robinson, T. E., & Berridge, K. C. (1993). The neural basis of drug craving: An incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Research Reviews, 18, 247-291.
122.
Schachar, R. J., & Logan, G. D. (1990). Impulsivity and inhibitory control in normal development and childhood psychopathology. Developmental Psychology, 26, 710-720.
123.
Schachar, R. J., & Tannock, R. (1995). A test of four hypotheses for the comorbidity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and coduct disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 639-648.
124.
Schachar, R., Tannock, R., Marriott, M., & Logan, G. (1995). Deficient inhibitory control in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 411-437.
125.
Schiffer, F. (1988). Psychotherapy of nine successfully treated cocaine abusers: Techniques and dynamics. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 5, 131-137.
126.
Schuster, C. R., Dockens, W. S., & Woods, J. H. (1966). Behavioral variables affecting the development of amphetamine tolerance. Psychopharmacologia, 9, 170-182.
127.
Sdao-Jarvie, K., & Vogel-Sprott, M. (1991). Response expectancies affect the acquisition and display of behavioral tolerance to alcohol. Alcohol, 8, 491-498.
128.
Siegel, S. (l975). Evidence from rats that morphine tolerance is a learned response. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 89, 498-506.
129.
Siegel, S. (1983). Classical conditioning, drug tolerance and drug dependence. In Y. Israel, B. F. Glaser, H. Kalant, R. E. Popham, W. Schmidt, & R. G. Smart (Eds.), Research advances in alcohol and drug problems (Vol. 7, pp. 207-246). New York: Plenum Press.
130.
Siegel, S. (1989). Pharmacological conditioning and drug effects. In A. J. Goudie & M. W. Emmett-Oglesby (Eds.), Psychoactive drugs: Tolerance and sensitization (pp. 115-180). Clifton, NJ: Humana press.
131.
Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Williams, E., Hall, M., & Saxton, T. (1996). Hyperactivity and delay aversion III: The effects on cognitive style of imposing delay after errors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 189-194.
132.
Staiger, P. K., & White, J. M. (1988). Conditioned alcohol-like and alcohol-opposite responses in humans. Psychopharmacology, 95, 87-91.
133.
Steele, C. M., & Josephs, R. A. (1990). Alcohol myopia: Its prized and dangerous effects. American Psychologist, 45, 921-933.
134.
Stewart, J., & Badiani, A. (1993). Tolerance and sensitization to the behavioral effects of drugs. Behavioural Pharmacology, 4, 289-312.
135.
Stewart, J., de Wit, H., & Eikelboom, R. (1984). Role of unconditioned and conditioned drug effects in the self-administration of opiates and stimulants. Psychological Review, 91, 251-268.
136.
Tannock, R. (1998). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Advances in cognitive, neurobiological, and genetic research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 65-99.
137.
Tannock, R., Schachar, R., Logan, G. (1995). Methylphenidate and cognitive flexibility: Dissociated dose effects in hyperactive children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 235-267.
138.
Tannock, R., Schachar, R. J., Carr, C. P., Chajczyk, D., & Logan, G. D. (1989). Effects of methylphenidate on inhibitory control in hyperactive children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 17, 473-491.
139.
Thompson, T. (1984). Behavioral mechanisms of drug dependence. In T. Thompson, P. B. Dews, & J. E. Barrett (Eds.), Advances in behavioral pharmacology (Vol., 4, pp. 1-43). New York: Academic Press.
140.
Tipper, S. P. (1985). The negative priming effect: Inhibitory priming by ignored objects. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 37A, 571-590.
141.
Tipper, S. P., Bourque, T., Anderson, S., & Brehaut, J. C. (1989). Mechanisms of attention: A developmental study. Journal of Experimental and Child Psychology, 48, 353-378.
142.
Van Selst, M., Ruthruff, E., & Johnston, J. C. (1999). Can practice eliminate the PRP effect? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 25, 1268-1283.
143.
Vogel-Sprott, M. (1992) Alcohol tolerance and social drinking: Learning the consequences. New York: Guilford.
144.
Vogel-Sprott, M., & Fillmore, M. T. (1999). Learning theory and research. In K. E. Leonard&H. T. Blane (Eds.), Psychological theories of drinking and alcoholism (2nd ed., pp. 292-327). New York: Guilford.
145.
Volkow, N. D., Ding, Y. S., Fowler, J. S., & Wang, G. J. (1996). Cocaine addiction: Hypothesis derived from imaging studies with PET. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 15, 55-71.
146.
Vuchinich, R. E., & Simpson, C. A. (1998). Hyperbolic temporal discounting in social drinkers and problem drinkers. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 6, 292-305.
147.
Welford, A. T. (1959). Evidence of a single-channel decision mechanism limiting performance in a serial reaction task. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 11, 193-210.
148.
Welford, A. T. (1980). The single-channel hypothesis. In A. T. Welford (Ed.), Reaction time (pp. 215-252). New York: Academic Press.
149.
Wikler, A. (1948). Recent progress in research on the neurophysiological basis of morphine addiction. American Journal of Psychiatry, 105, 329-338.
150.
Williams, G. V., & Goldman-Rakie, P. S. (1995). Blockade of dopamine D1 receptors enhances memory of prefrontal neurons in primate cerebral cortex. Nature, 376, 572-575.
151.
Wise, R. A., & Bozarth, M. A. (1987). A psychomotor stimulant theory of addiction. Psychological Review, 94, 469-492.
