Social cognitive neuroscience is a rapidly emerging field that utilizes cognitive neuroscientific techniques (e.g., lesion studies, neuroimaging) to address concepts traditionally in the social psychological realm (e.g., attitudes, stereotypes). The purpose of this article is to review published neuroscientific and neuropsychological research into social cognition. The author focuses on the role of the prefrontal cortex in social behavior and presents a framework that provides cohesion of this research. The article proposes that this framework will be useful in guiding future social cognitive neuroscientific research.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Abell, F., et al. (1999). The neuroanatomy of autism: A voxel-based whole brain analysis of structural scans. NeuroReport, 10, 1647-1651.
2.
Abrams, D., Marques, J., Brown, N., & Dougill, M. (2002). Anti-norm and pro-norm deviance in the bank and on the campus: Two experiments on subjective group dynamics. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 5, 163-182.
3.
Adolphs, R. (1999). Social cognition and the human brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3, 469-479.
4.
Adolphs, R., Sears, L., & Piven, J. (2001). Abnormal processing of social information from faces in autism. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 13, 232-240.
5.
Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (1998). The human amygdala in social judgment. Nature, 393, 470-474.
6.
Amen, D. G., Stubblefield, M., Carmichael, B., & Thisted, R. (1996). Brain and SPECT findings and aggressiveness. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 8, 129-137.
7.
Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27-51.
8.
Anderson, S. W., Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (1999). Impairment of social and moral behavior related to early damage in human prefrontal cortex. Nature, 2, 1032-1037.
9.
Andreasen, N. C., et al. (1995). Remembering the past: Two facets of episodic memory explored with positron emission tomography. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 1576-1585.
10.
Avgitidou, S. (2001). Peer culture and friendship relationships as contexts for the development of young children's pro-social behavior. International Journal of Early Years Education, 9, 145-152.
11.
Bachevalier, J. (1991). An animal model for childhood autism: Memory loss and socioemotional disturbances following neonatal damage to the limbic system in monkeys. In C. A. Tamminga & S. C. Schultz (Eds.), Advances in neuropsychology and psychopharmacology: Volume 1—Schizophrenia research (pp. 129-140). New York: Raven.
12.
Bachevalier, J. (1994). Medial temporal lobe structures and autism: A review of clinical and experimental findings. Neuropsychologia, 1994, 627-648.
13.
Bargh, J. A., Chaiken, S., Govender, R., & Pratto, F. (1992). The generality of the automatic attitude activation effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 893-912.
14.
Baron-Cohen, S., et al. (1999). Social intelligence in the normal and autistic brain: An fMRI study. European Journal of Neuroscience, 11, 1891-1898.
15.
Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a “theory of mind”? Cognition, 21, 37-46.
16.
Baron-Cohen, S., Ring, H. A., Moriarty, J., Schmitz, B., Costa, D., & Ell, P. (1994). Recognition of mental state terms: Clinical findings in children with autism and a functional neuroimaging study of normal adults. British Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 640-649.
17.
Barrash, J., Tranel, D., & Anderson, S. W. (2000). Acquired personality distrubances associated with bilateral damage to the ventromedial prefrontal region. Developmental Neuropsychology, 18, 355-381.
18.
Battegay, R. (2001). Reinforcement and containment in (therapeutic) groups. Group Analysis, 34, 363-370.
19.
Bauman, M., & Kemper, T. L. (1985). Histoanatomic observations of the brain in early infantile autism. Neurology, 35, 866-874.
20.
Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Damasio, A. R., & Lee, G. P. (1999). Different contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-making. Journal of Neuroscience, 19, 5473-5481.
21.
Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Anderson, S. W. (1998). Dissociation of working memory from decision making within the human prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 428-437.
22.
Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (1997). Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy. Science, 275, 1293-1295.
23.
Bechara, A., Tranel, D., & Damasio, H. (2000). Characterization of the decision-making deficit of patients with ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions. Brain, 123, 2189-2202.
24.
Bettencourt, B. A., & Miller, N. (1996). Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 422-427.
25.
Blair, R. J. R., & Cipolotti, L. (2000). Impaired social response reversal: A case of “acquired sociopathy.” Brain, 123, 1122-1141.
26.
Blumer, D., & Benson, D. F. (1975). Personality changes with frontal and temporal lobe lesions. In D. F. Benson & D. Blumer (Eds.), Psychiatric aspects of neurological disease (pp. 151-169). New York: Grune & Stratton.
27.
Bodner, M., Kroger, J., & Fuster, J. M. (1996). Auditory memory cells in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. NeuroReport, 7, 1905-1908.
28.
Bowden, D. M., Goldman, P. S., & Rosvold, H. E. (1971). Free behavior of rhesus monkeys following lesions of the dorsolateral and orbital prefrontal cortex in infancy. Experimental Brain Research, 12, 265-274.
29.
Breiter, H. C., et al. (1996). Response and habituation of the the human amygdala during visual processing of facial expression. Neuron, 17, 875-887.
30.
Brunet, E., Sarfati, Y., Hardy-Bayle, M.-C., & Decety, J. (2000). A PET investigation of the attribution of intentions with a nonverbal task. NeuroImage, 11, 157-166.
31.
Buchanan, T. W., Denburg, N. L., Tranel, D., & Adolphs, R. (2001). Verbal and nonverbal emotional memory following unilateral amygdala damage. Learning and Memory, 8, 326-335.
32.
Butter, C. M., & Snyder, D. R. (1972). Alterations in aversive and aggressive behaviors following orbital frontal lesions in rhesus monkeys. Acta Neurobiologica Experimentalis, 32, 525-565.
33.
Cacioppo, J. T. (2002). Social neuroscience: Understanding the pieces fosters understanding the whole and vice versa. American Psychologist, 57, 819-831.
34.
Cacioppo, J. T., Berntson, G. G., Sheridan, J. F., & McClintock, M. K. (2000). Mulitilevel integrative analyses of human behavior: Social neuroscience and the complementing nature of social and biological approaches. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 829-843.
35.
Calam, R., Bolton, C., & Roberts, J. (2002). Maternal expressed emotion, attributions and depression and entry into therapy for children with behaviour problems. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 41, 213-216.
36.
Calder, A. J., Keane, J., Manes, F., Antoun, N., & Young, A. W. (2000). Impaired recognition and experience of disgust following brain injury. Nature Neuroscience, 3, 1077-1078.
37.
Cameron, J. A., Alvarez, J. M., Ruble, D. N., & Fuligini, A. J. (2001). Children's lay theories about ingroups and outgroups: Reconceptualizing research on prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 118-128.
38.
Carter, C. S., MacDonald, A. M., Botvinick, M., Ross, L. L., Stenger, V. A., & Noll, D. (2000). Parsing executive processes: Strategic vs. evaluative functions of the anterior cingulate cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 97, 1944-1948.
39.
Casey, B. J., et al. (2000). Dissociation of response conflict, attentional selection, and expectancy with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 97, 8728-8733.
40.
Casson, R. W. (1983). Schemata in cognitive anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology, 12, 429-462.
41.
Castillo, E. M., Simos, P. G., Davis, R. N., Breier, J., Fitzgerald, M. E., & Papanicolaou, A. C. (2001). Levels of word processing and incidental memory: Dissociable mechanisms in the temporal lobe. NeuroReport, 12, 3561-3566.
42.
Channon, S., & Crawford, A. (2000). The effects of anterior lesions on perfromance on a story comprehension test: Left anterior impairment on a theory of mind-type task. Neuropsychologia, 38, 1006-1017.
43.
Coull, J. T., Frith, C. D., Buchel, C., & Nobre, A. C. (2000). Orienting attention in time: Behavioural and neuroanatomical distinction between exogenous and endogenous shifts. Neuropsychologia, 38, 808-819.
44.
Courchesne, E. (1997). Brainstem, cerebellar and limbic neuroanatomical abnormalities in autism. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 7, 269-278.
45.
Courchesne, E., Press, G. A., & Yeung-Courchesne, R. (1993). Parietal lobe abnormalities detected with MR in patients with infantile autism. AJR American Journal of Roentgenology, 160, 387-393.
46.
Courchesne, E., Yeung-Courchesne, R., Press, G.-A., Heeselink, J. R., & Jernigan, T. L. (1988). Hypoplasia of cerebellar vermal lobules VI and VII in autism. New England Journal of Medicine, 318, 1349-1354.
47.
Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information processing mechanisms in children's adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 74-101.
48.
Critchley, H. D., et al. (2000). The functional neuroanatomy of social behaviour: Changes in cerebral blood flow when people with autistic disorder process facial expressions. Brain, 123, 2203-2212.
49.
Cummings, J. L. (1995). Anatomic and behavioral aspects of frontal-subcortical circuits. In J. Grafman, K. J. Holyoak, & F. Boller (Eds.), Structure and functions of the human prefrontal cortex (pp. 1-13). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
50.
Damasio, A. R. (1995). On some functions of the human prefrontal cortex. In J. Grafman, K. J. Holyoak, & F. Boller (Eds.), Structure and functions of the human prefrontal cortex. New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
51.
Damasio, A. R. (1998). The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex. In A. C. Roberts, T. W. Robbins, & L. Weiskrantz (Eds.), The prefrontal cortex: Executive and cognitive functions (pp. 36-50). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
52.
Davidson, R. J. (2001). Toward a biology of personality and emotion. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 935, 191-207.
53.
Davidson, R. J., & Fox, N. A. (1989). Frontal brain asymmetry predicts infants' response to maternal separation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98, 127-131.
54.
Deets, A. C., Harlow, H. F., Singh, S. D., & Blomquist, A. J. (1970). Effects of bilateral lesions of the frontal granular cortex on the social behavior of rhesus monkeys. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 72, 452-461.
55.
Demb, J. B., Desmond, J. E., Wagner, A. D., Vaidya, C. J., Glover, G. H., & Gabrieli, J. D. (1995). Semantic encoding and retrieval in the left inferior prefrontal cortex: A functional MRI study of task difficulty and process specificity. Journal of Neuroscience, 15, 5870-5878.
56.
Demonet, J.-F., et al. (1992). The anatomy of phonological and semantic processing in normal subjects. Brain, 115, 1753-1768.
57.
Devine, P. G. (2001). Implicit prejudice and stereotyping: How automatic are they? Introduction to the special section. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 757-759.
58.
Dieser, R. B., & Ruddell, E. (2002). Effects of attribution retraining during theraputic recreation on attibutions and explanatory styles of adolecents with depression. Theraputic Recreation Journal, 36, 35-47.
59.
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 62-68.
60.
Duchaine, B., Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (2001). Evolutionary psychology and the brain. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 11, 225-230.
61.
Duckitt, J., Wagner, C., du Plessis, I., & Birum, I. (2002). The psychological bases of ideology and prejudice: Testing a dual process model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 75-93.
62.
Eldridge, M. A., Barnard, P. J., & Bekerian, D. A. (1994). Autobiographical memory and daily schemas at work. Memory, 2, 51-74.
63.
Emery, N. J., Capitanio, J. P., Mason, A., Machado, C. J., Mendoza, S. P., & Amaral, D. G. (2001). The effects of bilateral lesions of the amygdala on dyadic social interactions in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Behavioral Neuroscience, 115, 515-544.
64.
Eron, L. D. (1994). Theories of aggression: From drives to cognitions. In L. R. Huesmann (Ed.), Aggressive behavior: Current perspectives (pp. 3-11). New York: Plenum.
65.
Eslinger, P. J., Grattan, L. M., Damasio, H., & Damasio, A. R. (1992). Developmental consequences of childhood frontal lobe damage. Archives of Neurology, 49, 764-769.
66.
Fazio, R. H., Chen, J., McDonel, E. C., & Sherman, S. J. (1982). Attitude accessibility, attitude-behavior consistency, and the strength of the object-evaluation association. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 339-357.
67.
Fazio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Powell, M. C., & Kardes, F. R. (1986). On the automatic activation of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 229-238.
68.
Fine, C., Lumsden, J., & Blair, R. J. R. (2001). Dissociation between “theory of mind” and executive functions in a patient with early left amygdala damage. Brain, 124, 287-298.
69.
Fletcher, P. C., et al. (1995). Other minds in the brain: A functional imaging study of “theory of mind” in story comprehension. Cognition, 57, 109-128.
70.
Fletcher, P. C., & Henson, R. N. A. (2001). Frontal lobes and human memory: Insights from functional neuroimaging. Brain, 124, 849-881.
71.
Fortin, N. J., Agster, K. L., & Eichenbaum, H. B. (2002). Critical role of the hippocampus in memory for sequences of events. Nature Neuroscience, 5, 458-462.
72.
Fox, N. A., Bell, M. A., & Jones, N. A. (1992). Individual differences in response to stress and cerebral asymmetry. Developmental Neuropsychology, 8, 161-184.
73.
Fox, N. A., & Davidson, R. J. (1984). Hemispheric substrates for affect: A developmental model. In N. A. Fox & R. J. Davidson (Eds.), The psychobiology of affective development (pp. 353-382). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
74.
Franz, S. I. (1907). On the functions of the cerebrum: The frontal lobes. Archives of Psychology, 2, 1-64.
75.
Franzen, E. A., & Myers, R. E. (1973). Neural control of social behavior: Prefrontal and anterior temporal cortex. Neuropsychologia, 11, 141-157.
76.
Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (1999). Interacting minds—A biological basis [Review], Science, 286, 1692-1695.
77.
Fuster, J. M. (1997). The prefrontal cortex: Anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe (3rd ed.). New York: Raven.
78.
Fuster, J. M., & Alexander, G. E. (1971). Neuron activity related to short-term memory. Science, 173, 652-654.
79.
Gabrieli, J. D. E., Poldrack, R. A., & Desmond, J. E. (1998). The role of left prefrontal cortex in language and memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 95, 906-913.
80.
Gallagher, H. L., Happe, F., Brunswick, N., Fletcher, P. C., Frith, U., & Frith, C. D. (2000). Reading the mind in cartoons and stories: An fMRI study of “theory of mind” in verbal and nonverbal tasks. Neuropsychologia, 38, 11-21.
81.
Gallese, V., Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., & Rizzolatti, G. (1996). Action recognition in the premotor cortex. Brain, 119, 593-609.
82.
Gallese, V., & Goldman, A. (1998). Mirror neurons and the simulation theory of mind-reading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2, 493-501.
83.
Gazzaniga, M. S. (2000). Cognitive neuroscience: A reader. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
84.
Ghashghaei, H. T., & Barbas, H. (2002). Pathways for emotion: Interactions of prefrotnal and anterior temporal pathways in the amygdala of the rhesus monkey. Neuroscience, 115, 1261-1279.
85.
Goel, V., Grafman, J., Sadato, N., & Hallett, M. (1995). Modeling other minds. NeuroReport, 6, 1741-1746.
86.
Goel, V., Grafman, J., Tajik, J., Gana, S., & Danto, D. (1997). A study of the performance of patients with frontal lobe lesions in a financial planning task. Brain, 120, 1805-1822.
87.
Gorno-Tempini, M.-L., & Price, C. J. (2001). Identification of famous faces and buildings: A functional neuroimaging study of semantically unique items. Brain, 124, 2087-2097.
88.
Gorno-Tempini, M.-L., et al. (2001). Explicit and incidental facial expression processing: An fMRI study. NeuroImage, 14, 465-473.
89.
Goyer, P. F., Andreason, P. J., & Semple, W. E. (1994). Positronemission tomography and personality disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology, 10, 21-28.
90.
Grafman, J. (2002). The human prefrontal cortex has evolved to represent components of structured event complexes. In J. Grafman (Ed.), Handbook of neuropsychology (2nd ed., Vol. 7, pp. 157-174). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier.
91.
Grafman, J., Schwab, K., Warden, D., Pridgen, A., Brown, H. R., & Salazar, A. (1996). Frontal lobe injuries, violence, and aggression: A report of the Vietnam Head Injury Study. Neurology, 46, 1231-1238.
92.
Grafton, S. T., Arbib, M. A., Fadiga, L., & Rizzolatti, G. (1996). Localization of grasp representations in humans by PET: II. Observation compared with imagination. Experimental Brain Research, 112, 103-111.
93.
Greene, J. D., Sommerville, R. B., Nystrom, L. E., Darley, J. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgment. Science, 293, 2105-2108.
94.
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4-27.
95.
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480.
96.
Gregory, C., et al. (2002). Theory of mind impairments in patients with frontal variant frontotemporal dementia and Alzheimer's disease: Theoretical and practical implications. Brain, 125, 752-764.
97.
Grigsby, J., & Stevens, D. (2002). Memory, neurodynamics, and human relationships. Psychiatry, 65, 13-34.
98.
Guerra, N. G., Nucci, L., & Huesmann, L. R. (1994). Moral cognition and childhood aggression. In L. R. Huesmann (Ed.), Aggressive behavior: Current perspectives (pp. 13-33). New York: Plenum.
99.
Gur, R. C., et al. (2002). Brain activation during facial emotion processing. NeuroImage, 16, 651-662.
100.
Happe, F., et al. (1996). “Theory of mind” in the brain: Evidence from a PET scan study of Asperger Syndrome. NeuroReport, 8, 197-201.
101.
Happe, F., Malhi, G. S., & Checkley, S. (2001). Acquired mind-blindness following frontal lobe surgery? A single case study of impaired “theory of mind” in a patient treated with stereotactic anterior capsulotomy. Neuropsychologia, 39, 83-90.
102.
Hariri, A. R., Bookheimer, S. Y., & Mazziotta, J. C. (2000). Modulating emotional responses: Effects of a neocortical network on the limbic system. NeuroReport, 11, 43-48.
103.
Harlow, J. M. (1868). Recovery from the passage of an iron bar through the head. Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society, 2, 327-347.
104.
Harmer, C. J., Thilo, K. V., Rothwell, J. C., & Goodwin, G. M. (2001). Transcranial magnetic stimulation of medial-frontal cortex impairs the processing of angry facial expressions. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 17-18.
105.
Harmon-Jones, E., & Sigelman, J. (2001). State anger and prefrontal brain activity: Evidence that insult-related left-prefrontal activation is associated with experienced anger and aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 797-803.
106.
Hart, A. J., Whalen, P. J., Shin, L. M., McInerney, S. C., Fischer, H., & Rauch, S. L. (2000). Differential response in the human amygdala to racial outgroup vs ingroup face stimuli. NeuroReport, 11, 2351-2355.
107.
Hartley, A. A., & Speer, N. K. (2000). Locating and fractionating working memory using functional neuroimaging: Storage, maintenance, and executive functions. Microscopy Research and Technique, 51, 45-53.
108.
Hashimoto, T., et al. (1995). Development of the brainstem and cerebellum in autistic patients. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 25, 1-18.
109.
Haxby, J. V., Hoffman, E. A., & Gobbini, M. I. (2000). The distributed human neural system for face perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 223-233.
110.
Hazneder, M. M., Buchsbaum, M. S., Metzger, M., Solimando, A., Spiegel-Cohen, J., & Hollander, E. (1997). Anterior cingulate gyrus volume and glucose metabolism in autistic disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1047-1050.
111.
Henderson, H. A., Fox, N. A., & Rubin, K. H. (2001). Temperamental contributions to social behavior: The moderating roles of frontal EEG asymmetry and gender. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 68-74.
112.
Heyes, C. M. (1998). Theory of mind in nonhuman primates. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21, 101-148.
113.
Hirono, N., Mega, M., Dinov, I., Mishkin, F., & Cummings, J. L. (2000). Left frontotemporal hypoperfusion is associated with aggression in patients with dementia. Archives of Neurology, 57, 861-866.
114.
Horwitz, B., Rumsey, J. M., Grady, C. L., & Rapoport, S. I. (1988). The cerebral metabolic landscape in autism: Intercorrelations of regional glucose utilization. Archives of Neurology, 45, 749-755.
115.
Howard, M. A., et al. (2000). Convergent neuroanatomical and behavioural evidence of an amygdala hypothesis of autism. NeuroReport, 11, 2931-2935.
116.
Huesmann, L. R., & Guerra, N. G. (1997). Children's normative beliefs about aggression and aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 408-419.
117.
Hughes, C., Russell, J., & Robbins, T. W. (1994). Evidence for executive dysfunction in autism. Neuropsychologia, 32, 477-492.
118.
Huttenlocher, P. R., & Dabholkar, A. S. (1997). Developmental anatomy of prefrontal cortex. In N. A. Krasnegor, G. R. Lyon, & P. S. Goldman-Rakic (Eds.), Development of prefrontal cortex: Evolution, neurobiology, and behavior. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
119.
Iiadaka, T., et al. (2001). Neural interaction of the amygdala with the prefrontal and temporal cortices in the processing of facial expressions as revealed by fMRI. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 13, 1035-1047.
120.
Johnson, M. K., Kim, J. K., & Risse, G. (1985). Do alcoholic Korsakoff's Syndrome patients acquire affective reactions? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 11, 22-36.
121.
Kawasaki, H., et al. (2001). Single-neuron responses to emotional visual stimuli recorded in the human ventral prefrontal cortex. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 15-16.
122.
Keenan, J. P., Wheeler, M. A., Gallup, G. G., & Pascual-Leone, A. (2000). Self-recognition and the right prefrontal cortex. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 388-344.
123.
Kesler/West, M. L., et al. (2001). Neural substrates of facial emotion processing using fMRI. Cognitive Brain Research, 11, 213-226.
124.
Killgore, W. D. S., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2001). Sex differences in amygdala activation during the perception of facial affect. NeuroReport, 12, 2543-2547.
125.
Kinsbourne, M. (1978). Evolution of language in relation to lateral action. In M. Kinsbourne (Ed.), Asymmetrical function of the brain (pp. 553-566). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
126.
Kinsbourne, M., & Bemporad, B. (1984). Lateralization of emotion: A model and the evidence. In N. A. Fox & R. J. Davidson (Eds.), The psychobiology of affective development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
127.
Kircher, T. T. J., et al. (2001). Recognizing one's own face. Cognition, 78, B1-B15.
128.
Kling, A., & Cornell, R. (1971). Amygdalectomy and social behavior in the caged stump-tailed macaque. Folia Primatologica, 14, 91-103.
129.
Kojima, S., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1982). Delay related activity of prefrontal neurons in rhesus monkeys performing delayed response. Brain Research, 248, 43-49.
130.
Kolb, B. (1974). Social behavior of rats with chronic prefrontal lesions. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 87, 466-474.
131.
Kolb, B., & Nonneman, A. J. (1974). Frontolimbic lesions and social behavior in the rat. Physiology and Behavior, 13, 637-643.
132.
Krakow, K., Allen, P. J., Lemieux, L., Symms, M. R., & Fish, D. R. (2000). Methodology: EEG-correlated fMRI. Advances in Neurology, 83, 187-201.
133.
Krawczyk, D. C. (2002). Contributions of the prefrontal cortex to the neural basis of human decision-making. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 26, 631-664.
134.
Lee, A. C. H., Robbins, T. W., Pickard, J. D., & Owen, A. M. (2000). Asymmetric frontal activation during episodic memory retrieval: The effects of stimulus type on encoding and retrieval. Neuropsychologia, 38, 677-692.
135.
Leslie, A. M. (1987). Pretense and representation: The origins of “theory of mind.” Psychological Review, 94, 412-426.
136.
Leube, D. T., Erb, M., Grodd, W., Bartels, M., & Kircher, T. T. J. (2001). Differential activation in parahippocampal and prefrontal cortex during word and face encoding tasks. NeuroReport, 12, 2773-2777.
137.
Levy, R., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (2000). Segregation of working memory functions within the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Experimental Brain Research, 133, 23-32.
138.
Lieberman, M. D., Ochsner, K. N., Gilbert, T., & Schacter, D. L. (2001). Do amnesiacs exhibit cognitive dissonance reduction? The role of explicit memory and attention in attitude change. Psychological Science, 12, 135-140.
139.
Lowery, B. S., Hardin, C. D., & Sinclair, S. (2001). Social influence effects on automatic racial prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 842-855.
140.
Lubar, J. F., Herrmann, T. F., Moore, D. R., & Shouse, M. N. (1973). Effect of septal and frontal ablations on species-typical behavior in the rat. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 83, 260-270.
141.
Macmillan, M. (2000). Restoring Phineas Gage: A 150th perspective. Journal of the History of Neuroscience, 9, 46-66.
142.
Martin, A., & Chao, L. L. (2001). Semantic memory and the brain: Structure and processes. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 11, 194-201.
143.
Masterman, D. L., & Cummings, J. L. (1997). Frontal-subcortical circuits: The anatomic basis of executive, social and motivated behaviors. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 11, 107-114.
144.
Miller, M. H. (1976). Dorsolateral frontal lobe lesions and behavior in the macaque: Dissociation of threat and aggression. Physiology and Behavior, 17, 209-213.
145.
Milne, E., & Grafman, J. (2001). Ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions in humans eliminate implicit gender stereotyping. Journal of Neuroscience, 21, 151-156.
146.
Moll, J., et al. (2002). The neural correlates of moral sensitivity: A functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation of basic and moral emotions. Journal of Neuroscience, 22, 2730-2736.
147.
Moonen, C. T. W., & Bandettini, P. (2000). Functional MRI. New York: Springer Verlag.
148.
Morgan, P. M., & Scott, T. R. (2002). Group vs individual performance in mixed-motive situations: Exploring an inconsistency. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 87, 44-65.
149.
Morris, J. S., deBonis, M., & Dolan, R. J. (2002). Human amygdala responses to fearful eyes. NeuroImage, 17, 214-222.
150.
Morris, J. S., Friston, K. J., Buchel, C., Frith, C. D., Young, A. W., & Calder, A. J. (1998). A neuromodulatory role for the human amygdala in processing emotional facial expressions. Brain, 121, 47-57.
151.
Myers, R. E., Sweet, C., & Miller, M. (1973). Loss of social group affinity following prefrontal lesions in free-ranging macaques. Brain Research, 64, 257-269.
152.
Nagahama, Y., et al. (2001). Dissociable mechanisms of attentional control within the human prefrontal cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 11, 85-92.
153.
Nakic, M., Makale, M., Wood, J., & Grafman, J. (2001, November 11). Viewing violence activates human prefrontal cortex (Abstract). Paper presented at the Society for Neuroscience, San Diego, CA.
154.
Nestor, P. J., Graham, K. S., Bozeat, S., Simons, J. S., & Hodges, J. R. (2002). Memory consolidation and the hippocampus: Further evidence from studies of autobiographical memory in semantic dementia and frontal variant frontotemporal dementia. Neuropsychologia, 40, 633-654.
155.
Ochsner, K. N., & Lieberman, M. D. (2001). The emergence of social cognitive neuroscience. American Psychologist, 56, 717-734.
156.
O'Doherty, J., Winston, J., Critchley, H., Perrett, D., Burt, D. M., & Dolan, R. J. (2003). Beauty in a smile: The role of the medial orbitofrontal cortex in facial attractiveness. Neuropsychologia, 41, 147-155.
157.
Packard, M. G., & Cahill, L. (2001). Affective modulation of multiple memory systems. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 11, 752-756.
158.
Park, N. W., Conrod, B., Rewilak, D., Kwon, C., Gao, F., & Black, S. E. (2001). Automatic activation of positive but not negative attitudes after traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychologia, 39, 7-24.
159.
Partiot, A., Grafman, J., Sadato, N., Wachs, J., & Hallett, M. (1995). Brain activation during the generation of non-emotional and emotional plans. NeuroReport, 6, 1397-1400.
160.
Pascual-Leone, A., Grafman, J., Cohen, L. G., Roth, B. J., & Hallett, M. (1997). Transcranial magnetic stimulation: A new tool for the study of higher cognitive functions in humans. In F. Boller & J. Grafman (Eds.), Handbook of neuropsychology (Vol. 11, pp. 267-290). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier Science.
161.
Perrett, D. I., et al. (1985). Visual cells in the temporal cortex sensitive to face view and gaze direction. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B Biological Science, 223, 293-317.
162.
Perrett, D. I., Rolls, E. T., & Caan, W. (1982). Visual neurons responsive to faces in the monkey temporal cortex. Experimental Brain Research, 47, 329-342.
163.
Peters, M., & Ploog, D. (1976). Frontal lobe lesions and social behavior in the squirrel monkey (Saimiri): A pilot study. Acta Biologica Medica Germanica, 35, 1317-1326.
164.
Petrides, M., & Pandya, D. N. (1994). Comparative architectonic analysis of the human and macaque frontal cortex. In F. Boller & J. Grafman (Eds.), Handbook of neuropsychology (1st ed., Vol. 9, pp. 17-58). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier.
165.
Petrides, M., & Pandya, D. N. (1999). Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: Comparative cytoarchitectnic analysis in the human and the macaque brain and corticocortical connection patterns. European Journal of Neuroscience, 11, 1011-1036.
166.
Phelps, E. A., O'Connor, K. J., Cunningham, W. A., Funayama, E. S., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., & Banaji, M. R. (2000). Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 729-738.
167.
Phelps, E. A., O'Connor, K. J., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., Grillon, C., & Davis, M. (2001). Activation of left amygdala to a cognitive representation of fear. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 437-441.
168.
Phillips, M. L., et al. (1998). Neural responses to facial and expressions of fear and disgust. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 265, 1809-1817.
169.
Phillips, M. L., et al. (2001). Time courses of left and right amygdala responses to fearful facial expressions. Human Brain Mapping, 12, 193-202.
170.
Pietrini, P., Guazzelli, M., Basso, G., Jaffe, K., & Grafman, J. (2000). Neural correlates of imaginal aggressive behavior assessed by positron emission tomography. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1772-1781.
171.
Pinel, P., Dehaene, S., Riviere, D., & LeBihan, D. (2001). Modulation of parietal activation by semantic distance in a number comparison task. NeuroImage, 14, 1013-1026.
172.
Piven, J., Bailey, J., Ranson, B. J., & Arndt, S. (1997). An MRI study of the corpus callosum in autism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1051-1056.
173.
Piven, J., Berthier, M. L., Starkstein, S. E., Nehme, E., Pearlson, G., & Folstein, S. (1990). Magnetic resonance imaging evidence for a defect of cerebral cortical development in autism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 734-739.
174.
Pivik, R. T., Broughton, R. J., Coppola, R., Davidson, R. J., Fox, N. A., & Nuwer, M. R. (1993). Guidelines for the recording and quantitative analysis of electroencephalographic activity in research contexts. Psychophysiology, 30, 547-558.
175.
Poldrack, R. A., Wagner, A. D., Prull, M. W., Desmond, J. E., Glover, G. H., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (1999). Functional specialization for semantic and phonological processing in the left inferior prefrontal cortex. NeuroImage, 10, 15-35.
176.
Povinelli, D. J., & Preuss, T. M. (1995). Theory of mind: Evolutionary history of a cognitive specialization. Trends in Neuroscience, 18, 418-424.
177.
Pratkanis, A. R. (1989). The cognitive representation of attitudes. In A. R. Pratkanis, S. J. Breckler, & A. G. Greenwald (Eds.), Attitude structure and function (pp. 71-98). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
178.
Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1, 515-526.
179.
Raine, A., Buchsbaum, M., & LaCasse, L. (1997). Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography. Biological Psychiatry, 42, 495-508.
180.
Raine, A., Lencz, T., Bihrle, S., LaCasse, L., & Colletti, P. (2000). Reduced prefrontal gray matter volume and reduced autonomic activity in antisocial personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 119-127.
181.
Raleigh, M. J., Steklis, H. D., Ervin, F. R., Kling, A. S., & McGuire, M. T. (1979). The effects of orbitofrontal lesions on the aggressive behavior of vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus). Experimental Neurology, 66, 158-168.
182.
Rilling, J. K., & Insel, T. R. (1999). The primate neocortex in comparative perspective using magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Human Evolution, 37, 191-223.
183.
Rizzolatti, G., et al. (1996). Localization of grasp representations in humans by PET-1: Observation vs. execution. Experimental Brain Research, 111, 246-252.
184.
Rosenberg, M. J., & Hovland, C. I. (1960). Cognitive, affective, and behavioral components of attitudes. In M. J. Rosenberg, C. I. Hovland, W. J. McGuire, R. P. Abelson, & J. W. Brehm (Eds.), Attitude organization and change: An analysis of consistency among attitude components (pp. 1-14). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
185.
Rosvold, H. E., Mirsky, A. F., & Pribram, K. H. (1954). Influence of amygdalectomy on social behavior in monkeys. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 47, 173-178.
186.
Rowe, A. D., Bullock, P. R., Polkey, C. E., & Morris, R. G. (2001). “Theory of mind” impairments and their relationship to executive functioning following frontal lobe excisions. Brain, 124, 600-616.
187.
Russell, J., Saltmarsh, R., & Hill, E. (1999). What do executive factors contribute to the failure on false belief tasks by children with autism? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 859-868.
188.
Saver, J. L., & Damasio, A. R. (1991). Preserved access and processing of social knowledge in a patient with acquired sociopathy due to ventromedial frontal damage. Neuropsychologia, 29, 1241-1249.
189.
Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. P. (1977). Scripts, plans, goals and understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
190.
Schmidt, L. A., Fox, N. A., Shulkin, J., & Gold, P. W. (1999). Behavioral and physiological correlates of self-presentation in temperamentally shy children. Developmental Psychobiology, 35, 119-135.
191.
Semendeferi, K., Armstrong, E., Schleicher, A., Zilles, K., & van Hoesen, G. W. (2001). Prefrontal cortex in humans and apes: A comparative study of area 10. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 114, 224-241.
192.
Semendeferi, K., Lu, A., Schenker, N., & Damasio, H. (2002). Humans and great apes share a large frontal cortex. Nature Neuroscience, 5, 272-276.
193.
Siegel, B. V. J., Nuechterlein, K. H., Abel, L., Wu, J. C., & Buchsbaum, M. S. (1995). Glucose metabolic correlates of continuous performance test performance in adults with a history of infantile autism, schizophrenics, and controls. Schizophrenia Research, 17, 85-94.
194.
Sirigu, A., Zalla, T., Pillon, B., Grafman, J., Dubois, B., & Agid, Y. (1995). Planning and script analysis following prefrontal lobe lesions. In J. Grafman, K. J. Holyoak, & F. Boller (Eds.), Structure and functions of the human prefrontal cortex (pp. 277-288). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
195.
Sprengelmeyer, R., et al. (1996). Loss of disgust: Perception of faces and emotions in Huntington's disease. Brain, 119, 1647-1665.
196.
Sprengelmeyer, R., Rausch, M., Eysel, U. T., & Przuntek, H. (1998). Neural structures associated with recognition of facial expressions of basic emotions. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 265, 1927-1931.
197.
Stuss, D. T., Gallup, G. G., & Alexander, M. P. (2001). The frontal lobes are necessary for “theory of mind.” Brain, 124, 279-286.
198.
Tarr, M. J., & Gauthier, I. (2000). FFA: A flexible fusifrom area for subordinate-level visual processing automatized by expertise. Nature Neuroscience, 3, 764-769.
199.
Thomas, K. M., et al. (2001). Amygdala response to facial expressions in children and adults. Biological Psychiatry, 49, 309-316.
200.
Thompson-Schill, S. L., D'Esposito, M., Aguirre, G. K., & Farah, M. J. (1997). Role of left inferior prefrontal cortex in retrieval of semantic knowledge: A reevaluation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 94, 14792-14797.
201.
Vandenburghe, R., Price, C., Wise, R., Josephs, O., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1996). Functional anatomy of a common semantic system for words and pictures. Nature, 383, 154-256.
202.
Volkow, N. D., et al. (1995). Brain glucose metabolism in violent psychiatric patients: A preliminary study. Psychiatry Research, 61, 243-253.
203.
Volkow, N. D., & Tancredi, L. (1987). Neural substrates of violent behavior: A preliminary study with positron emission tomography. British Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 668-673.
204.
Vuilleumier, P., Armony, J. L., Driver, J., & Dolan, R. J. (2001). Effects of attention and emotion on face processing in the human brain: An event-related fMRI study. Neuron, 30, 829-841.
205.
Wagner, A. D., Poldrack, R. A., Eldridge, L. L., Desmond, J. E., Glover, G. H., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (1998). Material-specific lateralization of prefrontal activation during episodic encoding and retrieval. NeuroReport, 9, 3711-3717.
206.
Warren, J. M. (1964). The behavior of carnivores and primates with lesions in the prefrontal cortex. In J. M. Warren & K. Akert (Eds.), The frontal granular cortex and behavior (pp. 168-191). New York: McGraw-Hill.
207.
Whalen, P. J., Rauch, S. L., Etcoff, N. L., McInerney, S. C., Lee, M. B., & Jenike, M. A. (1998). Masked presentations of emotional facial expressions modulate amygdala activity without explicit knowledge. Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 411-418.
208.
Whiten, A., et al. (1999). Cultures in chimpanzees. Nature, 399, 682-685.
209.
Williams, J. H. G., Whiten, A., Suddendorf, T., & Perrett, D. I. (2001). Imitation, mirror neurons and autism. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 25, 287-295.
210.
Winston, J. S., Strange, B. A., O'Doherty, J., & Dolan, R. J. (2002). Automatic and intentional brain responses during evaluation of trustworthiness of faces. Nature Neuroscience, 5, 277-283.
211.
Wittenbrink, B., Judd, C. M., & Park, B. (2001). Spontaneous prejudice in context: Variability in automatically activated attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 815-827.
212.
Woermann, F. G., et al. (2000). Reduction of frontal neocortical grey matter associated with affective aggression in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy: An objective voxel by voxel analysis of automatically segmented MRI. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 68, 162-169.
213.
Wood, J. N., & Grafman, J. (2003). Human prefrontal cortex function: Processing and representational perspectives. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4, 139-147.
214.
Wood, J. N., Romero, S. G., Makale, M., & Grafman, J. (2003). Category-specific representations of social and nonsocial knowledge in the human prefrontal cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15, 236-248.
215.
World Health Organization. (1992). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
216.
Yang, T. T., et al. (2002). Amygdalar activation associated with positive and negative facial expressions. NeuroReport, 17, 1737-1741.
217.
Yuker, H. E. (1965). Attitudes as determinants of behavior. Journal of Rehabilitation, 31, 15-16.
218.
Zald, D. H. (2003). The human amygdala and the emotional evaluation of sensory stimuli. Brain Research Reviews, 41, 88-123.
219.
Zilbovicius, M., et al. (1995). Delayed maturation of the frontal cortex in childhood autism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 248-252.
220.
Zysset, S., Huber, O., Ferstl, E., & von Cramon, D. Y. (2002). The anterior frontomedian cortex and evaluative judgment: An fMRI study. NeuroImage, 15, 983-991.
