The development of written expression includes transcription, text generation, and executive functions (including planning) interacting within working memory. However, executive functions are not formally measured in school-based written expression tasks, although there is an opportunity for examining students’ advance planning—a key manifestation of executive functions. We explore the influence of advance planning on Grade 2 written expression using curriculum-based measurement in written expression (CBM-WE) probes with a convenience sample of 126 students in six U.S. classrooms. Controlling for transcription, which is typically the primary focus of instruction in early elementary grades, we found that a score on advance planning explained additional significant variance in writing quantity and accuracy. Results support that planning may be an additional score to add to the use of CBM-WE. Implications for assessment and further research on the early development of planning and executive functions related to written expression are explored.
AIMSweb. (2012). AIMSweb national norms table: Written expression. NCS Pearson.
2.
AltemeierL.JonesJ.AbbottR. D.BerningerV. W. (2006). Executive functions in becoming writing readers and reading writers: Note taking and report writing in third and fifth graders. Developmental Neuropsychology, 29(1), 161–173. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2901_8
3.
ArrimadaM.TorranceM.FidalgoR. (2019). Effects of teaching planning strategies to first-grade writers. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(4), 670–688. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12251
4.
BerningerV. W.ChanquoyL. (2012). What writing is and how it changes across early and middle childhood development: A multidisciplinary perspective. In GrigorenkoE. L.MambrinoE.PreissD. D. (Eds.), Writing: A mosaic of new perspectives (pp. 65–84). Psychology Press.
5.
BerningerV. W.VaughanK.AbbottR. D.BegayK.ColemanK. B.CurtinG.HawkinsJ. M.GrahamS. (2002). Teaching spelling and composition alone and together: Implications for the simple view of writing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 291–304. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-0663.94.2.291
CicchettiD.TothS. L. (1998). The development of depression in children and adolescents. American Psychologist, 53(2), 221–241. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.53.2.221
8.
CokerD. L.RitcheyK. D. (2010). Curriculum-based measurement of writing in kindergarten and first grade: An investigation of production and qualitative scores. Exceptional Children, 76(2), 175–193. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291007600203
9.
DiamondA.LeeK. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959–964. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204529
10.
DrijboomsE.GroenM. A.VerhoevenL. (2015). The contribution of executive functions to narrative writing in fourth grade children. Reading and Writing, 28(7), 989–1011. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-015-9558-z
11.
EadieP.BavinE. L.BrethertonL.CookF.GoldL.MensahF.WakeM.ReillyS. (2021). Predictors in infancy for language and academic outcomes at 11 years. Pediatrics, e20201712. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-1712
12.
FuchsD.FuchsL. S. (2015). Rethinking service delivery for students with significant learning problems: Developing and implementing intensive instruction. Remedial and Special Education, 36(2), 105–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932514558337
13.
GrahamS.BerningerV. W.AbbottR. D.AbbottS. P.WhitakerD. (1997). Role of mechanics in composing of elementary school students: A new methodological approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 170–182. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.89.1.170
HarrisK. R.GrahamS. (2009). Self-regulated strategy development in writing: Premises, evolution, and the future (BJEP Monograph Series II: No. 6, 113-135). https://doi.org/10.1348/978185409X422542.
16.
HarrisK. R.GrahamS.MasonL. H. (2006). Improving the writing, knowledge, and motivation of struggling young writers: Effects of self-regulated strategy development with and without peer support. American Educational Research Journal, 43(2), 295–340. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312043002295
KentS. C.WanzekJ. (2016). The relationship between component skills and writing quality and production across developmental levels: A meta-analysis of the last 25 years. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 570–601. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315619491
19.
KimY.-S. G.SchatschneiderC. (2017). Expanding the developmental models of writing: A direct and indirect effects model of developmental writing (DIEW). Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(1), 35–50. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000129
20.
KimY.-S. G.SchatschneiderC.WanzekJ.GatlinB.Al OtaibaS. (2017). Writing evaluation: Rater and task effects on the reliability of writing scores for children in Grades 3 and 4. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 30(6), 1287–1310. http://dx.doi.org.proxy1.cl.msu.edu/10.1007/s11145-017-9724-6
21.
LimpoT.AlvesR. A. (2013). Modeling writing development: Contribution of transcription and self-regulation to Portuguese students’ text generation quality. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(2), 401–413.
22.
LimpoT.AlvesR. A.ConnellyV. (2017). Examining the transcription-writing link: Effects of handwriting fluency and spelling accuracy on writing performance via planning and translating in middle grades. Learning and Individual Differences, 53, 26–36. http://dx.doi.org.proxy2.cl.msu.edu/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.11.004
23.
LimpoT.AlvesR. A.FidalgoR. (2014). Children’s high-level writing skills: Development of planning and revising and their contribution to writing quality. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(2), 177–193. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12020
24.
LlauradoA.DockrellJ. E. (2019). Children’s plans for writing: Characteristics and impact on writing performance. Journal of Literacy Research, 51(3), 336–356. https://doi.org/10.1177/1086296X19859516
25.
McCutchenD. (1996). A capacity theory of writing: Working memory in composition. Educational Psychology Review, 8(3), 299–325. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01464076
26.
MonroeM.ShermanE. (1966). Group diagnostic reading aptitude and achievement tests. C.H. Nevins Printing.
27.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers. (2010). Common core state standards: English language arts.
28.
OlinghouseN. G.GrahamS. (2009). The relationship between the discourse knowledge and the writing performance of elementary-grade students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(1), 37–50. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013462
29.
Powell-SmithK. A.ShinnM. R. (2004). Administration and scoring of written expression curriculum-based measurement (WE-CBM) for use in general outcome measurement. NCS Pearson.
RitcheyK. D.McMasterK. L.Al OltaibaS.PuranikC. S.Young-SukG. K.ParkerD. C.OrtizM. (2016). Indicators of fluent writing in beginning writers. In CummingsK. D.PetscherY. (Eds.), The fluency construct: Curriculum-based measurement concepts and applications (pp. 21–66). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2803-3_2.
32.
RomigJ. E.MillerA. A.TherrienW. J.LloydJ. W. (2020). Meta-analysis of prompt and duration for curriculum-based measurement of written language. Exceptionality, 29, 133–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/09362835.2020.1743706
33.
RomigJ. E.TherrienW. J.LloydJ. W. (2017). Meta-analysis of criterion validity for curriculum-based measurement in written language. The Journal of Special Education, 51(2), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466916670637
34.
SaddlerB.AsaroK. (2007). Increasing story quality through planning and revising: Effects on young writers with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 30(4), 223–234.
35.
TroiaG. A. (2009). Instruction and assessment for struggling writers: Evidence-based practices. Guilford Press.
36.
WhitakerD.BerningerV.JohnstonJ.SwansonH. L. (1994). Intraindividual differences in levels of language in intermediate grade writers: Implications for the translating process. Learning and Individual Differences, 6(1), 107–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/1041-6080(94)90016-7
