Smoking and Atherosclerosis

Read RC Systemic effects of smoking. Am J Surg 148:706, 1984.

Fielding JE Smoking: Health effects and control: Parts 1 and 2. N Engl J Med 313:491 and 555, 1985.

Pearl R. Tobacco smoking and longevity. Science 87:216, 1938.

A Report of the Surgeon General. The health consequences of smoking: Cardiovascular disease. Rockville, Md.: US. Dept. of Health and Human Services, 1983.

Miller GH , Gerstein DR The life expectancy of nonsmoking men and women. Public Health Rep 98:343, 1983.

Warner KE The economics of smoking: Dollars and sense. NY State J Med 83:1273, 1983.

Federal Emergency Management Agency. Fire in the United States. The National Fire Incidence Reporting System, 1982.

Schmidt F. Germany : A bankrupt health policy toward smoking . NY State J Med 83:1339, 1983.

Manderlier R. Belgium fights tobacco. NY State J Med 83:1342, 1983.

Spotlight on Japan: A search for solutions. Tobacco Reporter 109:30, 1982.

Rosales VJ A dilemma for the Philippines. NY State J Med 83:1341, 1983.

Whelan EM A smoking gun: How the tobacco industry gets away with murder. Philadelphia: George F Stickley, 1984.

Femi-Pearse D. Aspects of smoking in developing countries in Africa. NY State J Med 83:1310, 1983.

Statistical abstracts. Washington, D.C. : Tobacco Institute, 1983.

Warner KE The federal cigarette excise tax. In Proceedings of the National Conference on Smoking and Health. New York : American Cancer Society, 1981 .

The Pooling Project Research Group. Relationship of blood pressure, serum cholesterol, smoking habit, relative weight, and ECG abnormalities to incidence of majority coronary events: Final report of the Pooling Project. J Chronic Dis 31:201, 1978.

Keys A , ed. Smoking habits in seven countries. A multivariate analysis of death and coronary heart disease. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980.

Kannel WB , Gordon T , eds. The Framingham Study An epidemiological investigation of cardiovascular disease. DHEW Pub. No. (NIH) 76-1083. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare, 1976.

Hammond EC , Horn D. Smoking and death rates : Report on 44 months of follow-up of 187,783 men. II. Death rates by cause . JAMA 166:1294, 1958 .

Doyle JT , Dawber TR , Kannel WB , et al. The relationship of cigarette smoking to coronary heart disease. The second report of the combined experience of the Albany, NY, and Framingham, MA, studies. JAMA 190:886, 1964.

Doll R. , Peto R. Mortality in relation to smoking: 20 years observations on male British doctors . Br Med J 2:1525, 1976.

Kahn HA The Dorn study of smoking and mortality among U.S. veterans: Report on 8½ years of observation. In Haenszel W , ed. Epidemiological approaches to the study of cancer and other chronic diseases. National Cancer Institute Monograph 19. Washington, D.C.: US. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, NIH, 1966.

Willett WC , Green A. , Stampfer MJ , et al. Relative and absolute excess risks of coronary heart disease among women who smoke cigarettes. N Engl J Med 317:1303, 1987.

Kuller L. , Meilahn E. , Ockene J. Smoking and coronary heart disease. Connor WE , Bristow JD , eds. Coronary Heart Disease: Prevention, Complications, and Treatment. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1985 .

Kannel WB , Shurtleff D. The Framingham Study: Cigarettes and the development of intermittent claudication . Geriatrics 28:61, 1973.

Hughson WG , Mann JI , Garrod A. Intermittent claudication: Prevalence and risk factors. Br Med J 1:1379, 1978.

Kannel WB Update on the role of cigarette smoking in coronary artery disease . Am Heart J 101:319, 1981.

Juergens JL , Barker NW , Hines EA Arteriosclerosis obliterans: A review of 520 cases with special reference to pathogenic and prognostic factors. Circulation 21:188, 1960.

Widmer LK , Greensher A. , Kannel WB Occlusion of peripheral arteries: A study of 6400 working subjects . Circulation 30:836, 1964.

Auerbach O. , Garfinkel L. Atherosclerosis and aneurysm of aorta in relation to smoking habits and age. Chest 78:805, 1980.

Whisnant JP The decline of stroke. Stroke 14:160, 1984.

Abbott RD , Yin Y. , Reed DM , et al. Risk of stroke in male cigarette smokers. N Engl J Med 315:717, 1986.

Rogot E. , Murray L. Smoking and causes of death among U.S. veterans: 16 years of observation . Public Health Rep 95:213, 1980.

Salonen JT , Puska P. , Tuomilehto J. , et al. Relation of blood pressure, serum lipids, and smoking to the risk of cerebral stroke. A longitudinal study in eastern Finland. Stroke 13:327, 1982.

Wolf PA , D'Agostino RB , Kannel WB , et al. Cigarette smoking as a risk factor for stroke. The Framingham Study JAMA 259:1025, 1988.

Golditz GA , Bonita R. , Stampfer MJ Cigarette smoking and risk of stroke in middle-aged women. N Engl J Med 318:937, 1988.

Pettiti DB , Wingerd J. , Pellegrin F. , Ramcharan S. Risk of vascular disease in women: Smoking, oral contraceptives, non-contraceptive estrogens, and other factors. JAMA 242:1150, 1979 .

Clagett GP , Rich NM , McDonald RT , et al. Etiologic factors for recurrent carotid artery stenosis. Surgery 93:313, 1983.

Hertzer NR , Martinez BD , Beyen EG Recurrent stenosis after carotid endarterectomy . Surg Gynecol Obstet 149:360, 1979.

Rapp JH , Quarfordt P. , Krupski WC , et al. Hypercholesterolemia and early stenosis after carotid endarterectomy . Surgery 101:277, 1987.

Rogers RL , Meyer JS , Shaw TG , et al. Cigarette smoking decreases cerebral blood flow suggesting increased risk of stroke. JAMA 250:2796, 1983.

Stedman RL The chemical composition of tobacco and tobacco smoke. Chem Rev 8:153, 1968.

Green CR Neutral oxygenated compounds in cigarette smoke and their possible precursors. Recent advances in tobacco science. Valhalla, N.Y.: Nazler Dana Institute for Disease Prevention, American Health Foundation Series 3:94, 1977.

Heliovaara M. , Karvonen MJ , Punsar S. Smoking, carbon monoxide, and atherosclerotic diseases. Br Med J 1:268, 1978.

Couch NP On the arterial consequences of smoking. J Vasc Surg 3:807, 1986.

Thomas M. Smoking and vascular surgery. Br J Surg 68:601, 1981.

Turino GM Effect of carbon monoxide on the cardio-respiratory system. Carbon monoxide toxicity: Physiology and biochemistry. Circulation 63:253A, 1981.

Wald N. , Howard S. , Smith PG , et al. Association between atherosclerotic disease and carboxyhemoglobin levels in tobacco smokers. Br Med J 1:761, 1973.

Anderson EW , Andelman RJ , Strauch JM , et al. Effect of low-level carbon monoxide exposure on onset and duration of angina pectoris . Ann Intern Med 79:46, 1973.

Aronow WS , Cassidy J. , Van Grow JS , et al. Effect of cigarette smoking and breathing carbon monoxide on cardiovascular hemodynamics in anginal patients. Circulation 50:340, 1974.

DeBias DA , Banerjee CM , Birkhead NC , et al. Effects of carbon monoxide inhalation on ventricular fibrillation: Arch Environ Health 31:42, 1976.

Bellet S. , DeGuzman NT , Kostis JB , et al. The effect of cigarette smoke on ventricular fibrillation threshold in normal dogs and dogs with acute myocardial infarction. Am Heart J 83:67, 1972.

Astrup P. , Kjeldsen K. Model studies linking carbon monoxide and/or nicotine to arteriosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. Prev Med 8:295, 1979.

Hugod C. , Hawkins CH , Kjeldsen K. , et al. Effect of carbon monoxide exposure on aortic and coronary intimal morphology in the rabbit—A re-evaluation. Atherosclerosis 30:333, 1978.

Bylock A. , Boyers G. , Jansen I. , et al. Surface ultrastructure of human arteries with special reference to the effects of smoking. Acta Pathol Microbiol Immunol Scand [A] 87:56, 1979.

Davies RF , Topping DL , Turner DM The effect of intermittent carbon monoxide exposure or experimental atherosclerosis in the rabbit. Atherosclerosis 24:527, 1976.

Birnstingle MA , Hawkins LA , McEwan T. Experimental atherosclerosis during chronic exposure to carbon monoxide. Eur Surg Res 2:92, 1970.

Astrup P. Studies on carbon monoxide and nicotine. In Wynder EL, Hoffman D, Gori DB. Proceedings of the Third World Conference on smoking and health. DHEW Pub. No. (NIH) 76-221. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare , 1976.

Astrup P. , Kjeldsen K. , Wanstrup J. Enhancing influence of carbon monoxide on the development of atheromatosis in cholesterol-fed rabbits. J Atheroscler Res 7:343, 1967.

Crebster WS , Clarkson TB , Lofland HB Carbon monoxide aggravated atherosclerosis in the squirrel monkey. Exp Mol Pathol 13:36, 1970.

Siggard-Anderson J. , Petersen FB , Hansen TI , et al. Plasma volume and vascular permeability during hypoxia and carbon monoxide exposure. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 22 (suppl 103):39, 1968.

Parving HH The effect of hypoxia and carbon monoxide on plasma volume and capillary permeability to albumin. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 30:49, 1972.

Boxen I. Mechanisms of atherogenesis: Endothelial hypoxia proposed as the major initiative . Med Hypotheses 18:297, 1985.

Su C. Actions of nicotine and smoking on circulation. Pharmacotherapy 17:129, 1982.

Toda N. Regional differences in response to nicotine in isolated canine arteries . Eur J Pharmacol 35:151, 1976.

Starke K. Regulation of noradrenalin release by presynaptic receptor system . Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol 77:2, 1977.

Hladovec J. Endothelial injury by nicotine and its prevention . Experientia 34:1585, 1978.

Prerovsky I. , Hladovec J. Suppression of desquamating effect of smoking on the human endothelium by hydroxyethylrutosides. Blood Vessels 16:239, 1979.

Booyse FM , Osikowicz G. , Quarfoot AJ Effects of chronic oral consumption of nicotine on the rabbit aortic endothelium . Am J Pathol 102:229, 1981.

Boutet M. , Bazin M. , Turcotte H. , et al. Effects of cigarette smoke on rat thoracic aorta. Artery 7:56, 1980.

Herring M. , Gardner A. , Glover J. Seeding human arterial prostheses with mechanically derived endothelium: The detrimental effect of smoking. J Vasc Surg 1:279, 1984.

Krupski WC , Olive GC , Weber CA , et al. Comparative effects of hypertension and nicotine on injury-induced myointimal thickening. Surgery 102:409, 1987.

Clowes AW , Clowes MM The influence of hypertension on injury-induced myointimal thickening . Surgery 88:254, 1984.

Kershbaum A. , Bellet S. , Dickstein ER , et al. Effect of nicotine on free fatty acids. Based on a study in the human subject and the experimental animal. Circ Res 9:631, 1961.

Oliver MF , Yates PA Induction of ventricular arrhythmias by elevation of arterial free fatty acids in experimental myocardial infarction. Cardiology 56:359, 1972.

Castelli WP , Nickerson RJ , Newell JM , et al. Serum NEFA following fat, carbohydrate ingestion and during fasting as related to intracellular lipid deposition . J Atheroscl Res 6:328, 1966.

Wennmalm A. Nicotine inhibits hypoxia and arachidonate-induced release of prostacyclin-like activity in rabbit hearts. Br J Pharmacol 69:545, 1980.

Sonnenfeld T. , Wennmalm A. Inhibition by nicotine of the formation of prostacyclin-like activity in rabbit and human vascular tissue. Br J Pharmacol 69:609, 1980.

Effeney DJ Prostacyclin production by the heart: Effect of nicotine and carbon monoxide . J Vasc Surg 5:237, 1987.

Mustard JF , Murphy EA Effect of smoking on blood coagulation and platelet survival in man . Br Med J 1:846, 1963.

Kinlough-Rathbone R. , Packham MA , Mustard JF Vessel injury, platelet adherence and platelet survival. Arteriosclerosis 3:529, 1983.

Steele P. , Battock D. , Genton E. Effects of clofibrate and sulfinpyrazone on platelet survival time in coronary artery disease. Circulation 52:473, 1975.

Ritchie JL , Harker LA Platelet and fibrinogen survival in coronary atherosclerosis: Response to medical and surgical therapy. Am J Cardiol 39:595, 1977.

Steele P. , Battock D. , Pappas G. , et al. Correlation of platelet survival time with occlusion of saphenous vein aorto-coronary bypass grafts. Circulation 53:685, 1976.

Furster V. , Chesbro JH , Frye RL Platelet survival and the development of coronary artery disease in the young adult: Effects of cigarette smoking, strong family history and medical therapy . Circulation 63:546, 1981.

Wennmalm A. Effects of nicotine on cardiac prostaglandin and platelet thromboxane synthesis . Br J Pharmacol 64:559, 1978.

McGill HC Potential mechanism for the augmentation of atherosclerosis and atherosclerotic disease by cigarette smoking. Prev Med 8:390, 1979.

Eisen ME , Hammond EC The effect of smoking on packed red cell volume, red blood cell counts, haemoglobin and platelet counts. Can Med Assoc J 75:520, 1956.

Smith JR , Landaw SA Smoker's polycythemia. N Engl J Med 298:6, 1978.

Greenlaugh RM , ed. Smoking and Arterial Disease . London: Pitman Medical, 1981.

Howell RW Smoking habits and laboratory tests. Lancet 2:152, 1970.

Friedman GD , Siegelaub AB , Seltzer CC , et al. Smoking habits and the leukocyte count . Arch Environ Health 26:137, 1973.

Friedman GD , Klatsky AL , Siegelaub AB The leukocyte count as predictor of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 290:1275, 1974.

Fisch IR , Freedman SH Smoking, oral contraceptives and obesity. Effects on white blood cell count . JAMA 234:500, 1975.

Ludwig P. , Hoidal JR Alterations in leukocyte oxidative metabolism in cigarette smokers . Am Rev Respir Dis 126:977, 1982.

Ogston D. , Bennett NB , Ogston CM The influence of smoking on the plasma fibrinogen concentration. Atherosclerosis 11:349, 1970.

Wilhelmsen L. , Svardsudd K. , Kosan-Bengsten K. , et al. Fibrinogen as a risk factor for stroke and myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 311:501, 1984.

Levenson J. , Simon AC , Cambien FA , et al. Cigarette smoking and hypertension: Factors independently associated with blood hyperviscosity and arterial rigidity . Arteriosclerosis 7:572, 1987.

Galea G. , Davidson RJL. Haematological and haemorheological changes associated with cigarette smoking . J Clin Path 38:978, 1985.

Ernst E. , Matrai A. Abstention from chronic cigarette smoking normalizes blood rheology . Atherosclerosis 64:75, 1987.

Gofman JW , Lindgreen FT , Strisower B. , et al. Cigarette smoking, serum lipoproteins and coronary heart disease . Geriatrics 10:349, 1955.

Karvonen M. , Orma E. , Keys A. , et al. Cigarette smoking, serum cholesterol, blood pressure and body fatness. Lancet 1:492, 1959.

Dawber TR , Kannel WB , Revotskie N. , et al. Same factors associated with the development of coronary heart disease. Six years follow-up experience in the Framingham Study. Am J Public Health 49:1349, 1959.

Blackburn H. , Brozck J. , Taylor HL , et al. Comparison of cardiovascular and related characteristics in habitual smokers and non-smokers . Ann NY Acad Sci 90:277, 1960.

Thomas CB Characteristics of smokers compared with nonsmokers in a population of healthy young adults, including observations of family history, blood pressure, heart rate, body weight, and certain psychologic traits. Ann Intern Med 53:697, 1960.

Bronte-Stewart B. Cigarette smoking and ischemic heart disease . Br Med J 1:379, 1961.

Jenkins CD , Rosenman RH , Rosenman RH , et al. Cigarette Smoking . In relationship to coronary heart disease and related risk factors in the Western Collaborative Group Study. Circulation 38:1140, 1968.

Hjermann J. , Helgeland A. , Holme J. , et al. The intercorrelation of serum cholesterol, cigarette smoking and body weight. The Oslo Study. Acta Med Scand 200:479, 1976.

Andrus LH , Miller DC , Stallones RA , et al. Epidemiological study of coronary disease risk factors. 1. Study design and characteristics of individual study subjects. Am J Epidemiol 87:73, 1968.

Konttinin A. Cigarette smoking and serum lipids in young men. Br Med J 1:1115, 1962.

McDonald JC , Lidwell OM , Wright EA Serum cholesterol, smoking and body build. A survey in the Royal Air Force . Br J Prev Med 19:111, 1965.

Higgins MW , Kjelsberg M. Characteristics of smokers and nonsmokers in Tecumseh, Michigan. II. The distribution of selected physical measurements and physiologic variables and the prevalence of certain diseases in smokers and nonsmokers. Am J Epidemiol 86:60, 1967.

Howell RW Smoking habits and laboratory tests. Lancet 2:152, 1970.

Pincherle G. Factors affecting the mean serum cholesterol . J Chron Dis 24:289, 1971.

Dales LG , Friedman GD , Siegelaub AB , et al. Cigarette smoking and serum chemistry tests. J Chron Dis 27:293, 1974.

Gordon T. , Kannel WB , Dawber TR , et al. Changes associated with quitting cigarette smoking. The Framingham Study Am Heart J 90:322, 1975.

Gordon T. , Castelli WP , Hjortland MC , et al. High density lipoprotein as a protective factor against coronary heart disease. The Framingham Study Am J Med 62:707, 1977.

Bradby GVH , Valente AJ , Walton KW Serum high-density lipoprotein in peripheral vascular disease. Lancet 2:1271, 1978.

Rossner S. , Kjellin KG , Mettinger KL , et al. Dyslipoproteinemia in patients with ischemic cerebrovascular disease. A study of stroke before the age of 55. Atherosclerosis 30:199, 1978.

Sitori CR , Gianfranceschi G. , Gritti I. , et al. Decreased high density lypoprotein cholesterol levels in male patients with transient ischemic attacks. Atherosclerosis 32:205, 1979.

Hulley SB , Cohen R. , Widdowson G. Plasma high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level. Influence of risk factor intervention. JAMA 238:2269, 1977.

Goldbourt U. , Medalie JH Characteristics of smokers, nonsmokers and ex-smokers among 10,000 adult males in Israel. II. Physiologic, biochemical and genetic characteristics. Am J Epidemiol 105:75, 1977.

Arntzenius AC , van Gent CM , VanderVoort H. , et al. Reduced high-density lipoprotein in women aged 40-41 using oral contraceptives. Lancet 1:1221, 1978.

Mjos OD , Thelle DS , Forde OH , et al. Family study of high density lipoprotein cholesterol and the relation to age and sex. Acta Med Scand 201:323, 1977.

Garrison RJ , Kannel WB , Feinleib M. , et al. Cigarette smoking and HDL cholesterol. The Framingham offspring study. Atherosclerosis 30:17, 1978.

Raymond TL , Delucia AJ , Bryant LR Failure of chronic cigarette smoke exposure to alter plasma lipoproteins of stumptailed macaques (Macaca, Arctoides). Atherosclerosis 41:27, 1982.

Rogers WR , Bass RL , Johnson DE , et al. Atherosclerosis-related responses to cigarette smoking in a baboon. Circulation 61:1188, 1980.

Topping DL , Dwyer T. , Weller RA Peripheral vascular disease in cigarette smokers and impaired hepatic metabolism of lipoprotein remnants. Lancet 2:1327, 1977.

DeParscau L. , Fielding CJ Abnormal cholesterol metabolism in cigarette smokers. Metabolism 35:1070, 1986.

Castelli WP , Doyle JT , Gordon T. , et al. HDL cholesterol and other lipids in coronary heart disease. Circulation 55:767, 1977.

Castelli WP , Gordon T. , Hjortland MC , et al. Alcohol and blood lipids. Lancet 2:153, 1977.

St. Leger AS , Cochrance AL , Moore F. Factors associated with cardiac mortality in developed countries with particular reference to the consumption of wine . Lancet 1:1017, 1979.

Hopkins PN , Williams RR Identification and relative weight of cardiovascular risk factors. Cardiol Clin 4:3, 1986.

Criqui MH , Wallace RB , Heiss G. , et al. Cigarette smoking and plasma HDL cholesterol. Circulation 62 (suppl IV):70, 1980.

Wolf PA Cigarettes, alcohol and stroke. N Engl J Med 315:1087, 1986.

Haskell WI , Camargo C. , Williams PT , et al. The effect of cessation and resumption of moderate alcohol intake on serum high density lipoprotein subfractions: a controlled study. N Engl J Med 310:805, 1984.

Gordon T. , Kannel WB , McGee D. , et al. Death and coronary attacks in men after giving up cigarette smoking: A report from the Framingham Study. Lancet 2:1345, 1974.

Friedman GD , Pettiti DB , Bawol RD , et al. Mortality in cigarette smokers and quitters: Effect of baseline differences. N Engl J Med 304:1407, 1981.

Multiple risk factor intervention trial research group : Multiple risk factor intervention trial. Risk factor changes and mortality results. JAMA 248:1465, 1982.

Holme I. On the separation of the intervention effects of diet and antismoking advice on the incidence of major coronary events in coronary high risk men. The Oslo Study. J Oslo City Hosp 32:31, 1982.

Rose G. , Hamilton PJS , Colwell L. , et al. A randomized controlled trial of anti-smoking advice: 10 year results. J Epidemiol Community Health 36:102, 1982.

Trials of coronary heart disease prevention. Lancet 2:803, 1976.

Salonen JT , Puska P. , Mustaniemi H. Changes in morbidity and mortality during comprehensive community programme to control cardiovascular diseases during 1972-1977 in North Karelia. Br Med J 2:1178, 1979.

Silbert S. , Zazeela H. Prognosis in arteriosclerotic peripheral vascular disease. JAMA 166:1816, 1958.

Juergens JL , Barker NW , Hines EA Arteriosclerosis obliterans: Review of 520 cases with special reference to pathogenic and prognostic factors . Circulation 21:188, 1960.

Hughson WG , Mann JI , Tibbs DJ , et al. Intermittent claudication: Factors determining outcome. Br Med J 1:1377, 1978.

Quick CRG , Cotton LT The measured effect of stopping smoking on intermittent claudication. Br J Surg 69(suppl): S24, 1982.

Jonason T. , Bergstrom R. Cessation of smoking in patients with intermittent claudication: Effects on the risk of peripheral vascular complications, myocardial infarction and mortality. Acta Med Scand 221:253, 1987.

Myers KA , King RB , Scott DF , et al. The effect of smoking on the late patency of arterial reconstructions in the legs. Br J Surg 65:267, 1978.

Kozlowski L. , Herman CP , Frecker RC Filtering smoker's hot air. Lancet 1:699, 1980.

Greenlaugh RM , Laing SP , Cole PV , et al. Smoking and arterial reconstruction . Br J Surg 68:605, 1981.

Wray R. , DePalma RG , Hubay CH Late occlusion of aortofemoral bypass grafts. Influence of cigarette smoking . Surgery 70:969, 1971.

Rogot E. Smoking and general mortality among U.S. veterans, 1959-1969. Washington, D.C.: US. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, PHS, NIH, National Heart and Lung Institute, 1974 .

Rogers RL , Meyer JS , Judd BW , et al. Abstention from cigarette smoking improves cerebral perfusion among elderly chronic smokers. JAMA 253:2970, 1985 .

Smoking and health. Report of the Advisory Committee of the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service . Public Health Service Pub. No. 1103. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1964.

National Center for Health Statistics. Division of Health Interview Statistics. Data from the National Health Inverview Survey, May 1984.

United States Department of Agriculture. Tobacco Outlook and Situation Report. March 1984.

Changes in cigarette smoking practices among adults. DHEW Pub. No. [PHS] 79-1250. Vital and Health Statistics of the National Center for Health Statistics, No. 52. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1979.

Coe RM , Cohen JD Cigarette smoking among medical students . Am J Public Health 70:169, 1980.

A Report of the Surgeon General. The health consequences of smoking: The changing cigarette. Rockville, Md.: Dept. of Health and Human Services, 1979.

Rickert WS "Less hazardous" cigarettes: Fact or fiction ? NY State J Med 83:1269, 1983.

Benowitz NL , Hall SM , Herning RI , et al. Smokers of low-yield cigarettes do not consume less nicotine. N Engl J Med 309:139, 1983.

Benowitz NL , Jacob P. , Kozlowski LT , et al. Influence of smoking fewer cigarettes on exposure to tar, nicotine, and carbon monoxide . N Eng J Med 315:1310, 1986.

Lee PN , Garfinkel L. Mortality and type of cigarette smoked. J Epidemiol Community Health 35:16, 1981.

Hammond EC , Garfinkel L. , Seidman H. , et al. "Tar" and nicotine content of cigarette smoke in relation to death rates. Environ Res 12:263, 1976.

Kaufman DW , Helmrich SP , Rosenberg L. , et al. Nicotine and carbon monoxide content of cigarette smoke and the risk of myocardial infarction in young men. N Engl J Med 308:409, 1983.

Castelli WP , Garrison RT , Dawber TR , et al. The filter cigarette and coronary heart disease: The Framingham Study. Lancet 2:109, 1981.

Stamler J. , Beard RR , Connor WE , et al. Primary prevention of the atherosclerotic diseases. Atherosclerosis and Epidemiology Study Groups . Circulation 42:55, 1970.

Orleans CT Understanding and promoting smoking cessation: Overview and guidelines for physician intervention. Ann Rev Med 36:51, 1985.

Grosz HJ Nicotine addiction: Treatment with medical hypnosis: Part 3. J Indiana State Med Assoc 72:43, 1979.

Chernick V. The brains' own morphine and cigarette smoking: The junkie in disguise. Chest 83:2, 1983.

Hunt HA , Bespalec DA An evaluation of current methods of modifying smoking behavior. J Clin Psychol 30:431, 1974.

Health and Public Policy Committee, American College of Physicians. Methods for stopping cigarette smoking . Ann Int Med 105:281, 1986.

Bernstein PA , Glasgow RE The modification of smoking behavior . In Pomerleau OF , Brady JP , eds. Behavioral Medicine: Theory and Practice. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1979.

Best JA , Block M. On improving compliance: Cigarette smoking. In Haynes RB , Sakett DL , eds. Compliance. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins , 1979.

Pechacek TF , Danaher BG How and why people quit smoking: A cognitive-behavioral analysis. In Kendall PC , Hollon SD , eds. Cognitive Behavioral Interventions: Theory, Research and Procedures. New York: Academic Press, 1979.

Syme S. , Alcalay R. Control of cigarette smoking from a social perspective. Ann Rev Public Health 3:101, 1982.

Warner KE Cigarette smoking in the 1970's: The impact of the anti-smoking campaign on consumption. Science 211:729, 1981.

Schwartz JL , Rider G. Review and evaluation of smoking control methods: The United States and Canada, 1969-1977. DHEW Pub. No. (CDC) 78-8369. Washington, D.C. : DHEW , 1978.

Bernstein DA Modification of smoking behavior: An evaluative review. Psychol Bull 71:418, 1969.

Ejrup B. Treatment of tobacco addiction: Experiences in tobacco withdrawal clinics . In American Cancer Society. Can we help them stop? Chicago: American Cancer Society, 1964.

Feldman J. An assessment of the effectiveness of nicotine chewing gum: Unfulfilled expectations . NY State J Med 85:378, 1985.

Blum A. Nicotine chewing gum and the medicalization of smoking. Ann Intern Med 101:121, 1984.

Schneider NG , Jarvik ME , Forsythe AB , et al. Nicotine gum in smoking cessation: A placebo controlled double blind trial. Addict Behav 8:253, 1983.

Danaher BG , Jeffrey RW , Zimmerman R. , et al. Aversive smoking using printed instructions and audiotape adjuncts. Addict Behav 5:353, 1980.

Lichstein KL , Stalgaitis SJ Treatment of cigarette smoking in couples by reciprocal aversion. Behav Ther 11:104, 1980.

Delahunt J. , Curran JP Effectiveness of negative practice and self-control techniques in the reduction of smoking behavior. J Consult Clin Psychol 44:1002, 1976.

Lando HA Successful treatment of smokers with a broad spectrum behavioral approach . J Consult Clin Psychol 45:361, 1977.

Lando HA A factorial analysis for aversion and maintenance in the elimination of smoking . Addict Behav 7:143, 1982.

Warner KE Cigarette advertising and media coverage of smoking and health. N Engl J Med 312:384, 1985.

Ockene JK , Ockene JS Nine ways to help your patients stop smoking. Your Patient and Cancer, 1982, pp 47-61.

Korsak A. Motivations in smoking cessation: Which are more effective—Positive or negative motivations? World Smoking Health 4:46, 1979.

Kanzler M. , Jaffe JH , Zeidenberg P. Long and short-term effectiveness of a large scale proprietary smoking cessation program: A 4 year follow-up of SmokeEnders participants. J Clin Psychol 32:661, 1976.

Holroyd J. Hypnosis treatment for smoking: An evaluative review. Int J Clin Exp Hypn 28:341, 1980.

Hall JA , Crasilneck HB Development of a hypnotic technique for treating chronic cigarette smokers . Int J Clin Exp Hypn 18:283, 1970.

Orue MT Hypnosis in the treatment of smoking. In Steinberg J, Griffiths W, Ball K, Taylor RM , eds. Health Consequences, Education, Cessation Activities and Governmental Action. Vol. II. Proceedings of the Third World Conference on smoking and health. DHEW Pub. No. (NIH) 77-1413. Washington, D.C.: Public Health Service, 1977.

Cousin M. Tobacco addiction, acupuncture, nasopuncture and auriculopuncture . Gazette Medicale de France 83:1973, 1976.

Fuller JA Smoking withdrawal and acupuncture. Med J Aust 1:28, 1982.

Lamontagne Y. , Annable L. Acupuncture for smokers: Effect of expectation and outcome. Am J Acupuncture 7:255, 1979.

Hughes GH , Hymowitz N. , Ockene J. , et al. The multiple risk factor intervention trial (MRFIT). V Intervention on smoking. Prev Med 10:476, 1981.

Malotte CK , Fielding JE , Danaher BG Description and evaluation of the smoking cessation component of a multiple risk factor intervention program. Am J Public Health 71:844, 1981.

Hymowitz N. , Laquatra I. , Kael S. The smoking cessation reduction program. J Med Soc NJ 81:487, 1984.