Several developments in endovascular technology have greatly expanded the application of these techniques to treat extra- and intracranial cerebrovascular diseases. This review explores the indications, techniques, and clinical results for endovascular treatment of ischemic stroke and intracranial stenoses, aneurysms, and arteriovenous malformations.
KalacheAAboderinI. Stroke: the global burden. Health Policy Plan. 1995;10:1–21.
2.
KiemeneijFLaarmanGJOdekerkenD. A randomized comparison of percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty by the radial, brachial and femoral approaches: the access study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;29:1269–1275.
3.
FesslerRDWakhlooAKLanzinoG. Transradial approach for vertebral artery stenting: technical case report. Neurosurgery. 2000;46:1524–1528.
4.
SeldingerSI. Catheter replacement of the needle in percutaneous angiography: a new technique. Acta Radiol. 1953;39:368–376.
5.
MoranCJCrossDTalcottM. Magnetically controlled endovascular navigation: in vivo experience [Abstract]. J Neurosurg. 2000;92:205.
6.
SussmanBJFitchTS. Thrombolysis with fibrinolysis in cerebral arterial occlusion. JAMA. 1958;167:1705–1709.
7.
Tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke rt-PA Stroke Study Group. N Engl J Med.1995;333:1581–1587.
8.
HackeWKasteMFieschiC. Randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial of thrombolytic therapy with intravenous alteplase in acute ischaemic stroke (ECASS II). Second European-Australasian Acute Stroke Study Investigators. Lancet. 1998;352:1245–1251.
9.
AlbersGWBatesVEClarkWM. Intravenous tissue-type plasminogen activator for treatment of acute stroke: the Standard Treatment with Alteplase to Reverse Stroke (STARS) study. JAMA. 2000;283:1145–1150.
10.
QureshiAIRingerAJSuriMF. Acute interventions for ischemic stroke: present status and future directions. J Endovasc Ther.2000;7:423–428.
QureshiAISiddiquiAMSuriMF. Aggressive mechanical clot disruption and low-dose intra-arterial third-generation thrombolytic agent for ischemic stroke: a prospective study. Neurosurgery. 2002;51:1319–1329.
13.
TomsickTBrottTBarsanW. Prognostic value of the hyperdense middle cerebral artery sign and stroke scale score before ultra early thrombolytic therapy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1996;17:79–85.
14.
FurlanAHigashidaRWechslerL. Intra-arterial prourokinase for acute ischemic stroke. The PROACT II study: a randomized controlled trial. Prolyse in acute cerebral thromboembolism. JAMA. 1999;282:2003–2011.
15.
ChalelaJAKatzanILiebeskindDS. Safety of intra-arterial thrombolysis in the postoperative period. Stroke. 2001;32:1365–1369.
16.
del ZoppoGJPoeckKPessinMS. Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator in acute thrombotic and embolic stroke. Ann Neurol. 1992;32:78–86.
17.
SenSAgarwalPEskharN. Differential response to intravenous versus intra-arterial thrombolysis in acute ischemic stroke on the basis of hyperdense middle cerebral artery sign [Abstract]. Stroke. 2003;34:285.
18.
QureshiAI. New grading system for angiographic evaluation of arterial occlusions and recanalization response to intra-arterial thrombolysis in acute ischemic stroke. Neurosurgery. 2002;50:1405–1415.
19.
SuarezJISunshineJLTarrR. Predictors of clinical improvement, angiographic recanalization, and intracranial hemorrhage after intra-arterial thrombolysis for acute ischemic stroke. Stroke. 1999;30:2094–2100.
20.
UedaTSakakiSKumonY. Multivariable analysis of predictive factors related to outcome at 6 months after intra-arterial thrombolysis for acute ischemic stroke. Stroke. 1999;30:2360–2365.
21.
del ZoppoGJHigashidaRTFurlanAJ. PROACT: a phase II randomized trial of recombinant prourokinase by direct arterial delivery in acute middle cerebral artery stroke. PROACT Investigators: Prolyse in Acute Cerebral Thromboembolism. Stroke. 1998;29:4–11.
22.
QureshiAISuriMFShatlaAA. Intraarterial recombinant tissue plasminogen activator for ischemic stroke: an accelerating dosing regimen. Neurosurgery. 2000;47:473–479.
23.
ZeumerHFreitagHJZanellaF. Local intra-arterial fibrinolytic therapy in patients with stroke: urokinase versus recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (r-TPA). Neuroradiology. 1993;35:159–162.
24.
LewandowskiCAFrankelMTomsickTA. Combined intravenous and intra-arterial r-TPA versus intra-arterial therapy of acute ischemic stroke: Emergency Management of Stroke (EMS) Bridging Trial. Stroke. 1999;30:2598–2605.
25.
The IMS Investigators. The Interventional Management of Stroke (IMS) Study: safety results [Abstract]. Stroke. 2003;34:247.
26.
KimSSiddiquiAHanelR. Mechanical thrombolysis for acute ischemic stroke. Neurointerventionist. 2003;4:15–22.
27.
MahonBRNesbitGMBarnwellSL. North American clinical experience with the EKOS MicroLysUS infusion catheter for the treatment of embolic stroke. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2003;24:534–538.
28.
BerlisALutsepHBarnwellS. Mechanical thrombolysis in acute ischemic stroke with endovascular photoacoustic recanalization. Stroke. 2004;35:1112–1116.
29.
StarkmanSGobinYPDuckwilerGR. Mechanical embolus removal in cerebral ischemia (MERCI) trial. 7th International Symposium on Thrombolysis and Acute Stroke Therapy, Lyons, France, May 2002.
30.
EckertBKochCThomallaG. Acute basilar artery occlusion treated with combined intravenous Abciximab and intra-arterial tissue plasminogen activator: report of 3 cases. Stroke. 2002;33:1424–1427.
31.
WitykRJLehmanDKlagM. Race and sex differences in the distribution of cerebral atherosclerosis. Stroke. 1996;27:1974–1980.
32.
QureshiAIZiaiWCYahiaAM. Stroke free survival and its determinants in patients with symptomatic vertebrobasilar stenosis: a multicenter study. Neurosurgery. 2003;52:1033–1040.
33.
BogousslavskyJBarnettHJFoxAJ. Atherosclerotic disease of the middle cerebral artery. Stroke. 1986;17:1112–1120.
34.
ChimowitzMIKokkinosJStrongJ. The Warfarin-Aspirin Symptomatic Intracranial Disease Study. Neurology. 1995;45:1488–1493.
35.
ThijsVNAlbersGW. Symptomatic intracranial atherosclerosis: outcome of patients who fail antithrombotic therapy. Neurology. 2000;55:490–497.
36.
AliZQureshiAISuriMF. Single-center study to evaluate long-term effectiveness of angioplasty and/or stent placement for intracranial atherosclerotic disease [Abstract]. Neurology. 2002;58:A313.
37.
MarksMPMarcellusMNorbashAM. Outcome of angioplasty for atherosclerotic intracranial stenosis. Stroke. 1999;30:1065–1069.
38.
GomezCRMisraVKLiuMW. Elective stenting of symptomatic basilar artery stenosis. Stroke. 2000;31:95–99.
39.
LutsepHLBarnwellSLMawadM. Stenting of symptomatic atherosclerotic lesions in the vertebral or intracranial arteries (SSYLVIA): study results [Abstract]. Stroke. 2003;34:253.
40.
RinkelGJDjibutiMAlgraA. Prevalence and risk of rupture of intracranial aneurysms: a systematic review. Stroke. 1998;29:251–256.
41.
GuglielmiGVinuelaFSepetkaI. Electrothrombosis of saccular aneurysms via endovascular approach. Electrochemical basis, technique, and experimental results. J Neurosurg. 1991;75:1–7.
42.
MacdonaldRLMojtahediSJohnsL. Randomized comparison of Guglielmi detachable coils and cellulose acetate polymer for treatment of aneurysms in dogs. Stroke. 1998;29:478–486.
43.
StiverSIPorterPJWillinskyRA. Acute human histopathology of an intracranial aneurysm treated using Guglielmi detachable coils: case report and review of the literature. Neurosurgery. 1998;43:1203–1208.
44.
QureshiAISuriMFKhanJ. Endovascular treatment of intracranial aneurysms by using Guglielmi detachable coils in awake patients: safety and feasibility. J Neurosurg. 2001;94:880–885.
45.
CottierJPPascoAGallasS. Utility of balloon-assisted Guglielmi detachable coiling in the treatment of 49 cerebral aneurysms: a retrospective, multicenter study. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2001;22:345–351.
46.
LanzinoGWakhlooAKFesslerRD. Efficacy and current limitations of intravascular stents for intracranial internal carotid, vertebral, and basilar artery aneurysms. J Neurosurg. 1999;91:538–546.
47.
RaymondJGuilbertFRoyD. Neck-bridge device for endovascular treatment of wide-neck bifurcation aneurysms: initial experience. Radiology. 2001;221:318–326.
48.
MawadMECekirgeSCiceriE. Endovascular treatment of giant and large intracranial aneurysms by using a combination of stent placement and liquid polymer injection. J Neurosurg. 2002;96:474–482.
49.
SedatJDibMLonjonM. Endovascular treatment of ruptured intracranial aneurysms in patients aged 65 years and older: follow-up of 52 patients after 1 year. Stroke. 2002;33:2620–2625.
50.
KremerCGrodenCHansenHC. Outcome after endovascular treatment of Hunt and Hess grade IV or V aneurysms: comparison of anterior versus posterior circulation. Stroke. 1999;30:2617–2622.
51.
ValleeJNAymardAVicautE. Endovascular treatment of basilar tip aneurysms with Guglielmi detachable coils: predictors of immediate and long-term results with multivariate analysis 6-year experience. Radiology. 2003;226:867–879.
52.
JohnstonSCHigashidaRTBarrowDL. Recommendations for the endovascular treatment of intracranial aneurysms: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Committee on Cerebrovascular Imaging of the American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Radiology. Stroke. 2002;33:2536–2544.
53.
BaltsaviasGSByrneJVHalseyJ. Effects of timing of coil embolization after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage on procedural morbidity and outcomes. Neurosurgery. 2000;47:1320–1331.
54.
MorizaneANakaharaISakaiN. Endovascular surgery for untreated ruptured aneurysm with symptomatic vasospasm [in Japanese]. No Shinkei Geka. 1999;27:941–946.
55.
BrilstraEHRinkelGJEvan der GraafY. Treatment of intracranial aneurysms by embolization with coils: a systematic review. Stroke. 1999;30:470–476.
56.
KuetherTANesbitGMBarnwellSL. Clinical and angiographic outcomes, with treatment data, for patients with cerebral aneurysms treated with Guglielmi detachable coils: a single-center experience. Neurosurgery. 1998;43:1016–1025.
57.
MalischTWGuglielmiGVinuelaF. Intracranial aneurysms treated with the Guglielmi detachable coil: midterm clinical results in a consecutive series of 100 patients. J Neurosurg. 1997;87:176–183.
58.
MakouiASSmithDAEvansAJ. Early aneurysm recurrence after technically satisfactory Guglielmi detachable coil therapy: is early surveillance needed?J Neurosurg. 2000;92:355–358.
KoivistoTVanninenRHurskainenH. Outcomes of early endovascular versus surgical treatment of ruptured cerebral aneurysms. A prospective randomized study. Stroke. 2000;31:2369–2377.
61.
MolyneuxAKerrRStrattonI. International Subarachnoid Aneurysm Trial (ISAT) of neurosurgical clipping versus endovascular coiling in 2143 patients with ruptured intracranial aneurysms: a randomized trial. Lancet. 2002;360:1267–1274.
62.
QureshiAISuriMFHanelRA. Trends in morbidity and mortality associated with hospitalization for ruptured and unruptured intracranial aneurysms in the United States [Abstract]. Stroke. 2002;33:353.
63.
JohnstonSCDudleyRAGressDR. Surgical and endovascular treatment of unruptured cerebral aneurysms at university hospitals. Neurology. 1999;52:1799–1805.
64.
JohnstonSCZhaoSDudleyRA. Treatment of unruptured cerebral aneurysms in California. Stroke. 2001;32:597–605.
65.
JohnstonSCWilsonCBHalbachVV. Endovascular and surgical treatment of unruptured cerebral aneurysms: comparison of risks. Ann Neurol. 2000;48:11–19.
66.
VinuelaFDionJEDuckwilerG. Combined endovascular embolization and surgery in the management of cerebral arteriovenous malformations: experience with 101 cases. J Neurosurg. 1991;75:856–864.
67.
OgilvyCSStiegPEAwadI. AHA Scientific Statement: recommendations for the management of intracranial arteriovenous malformations: a statement for healthcare professionals from a special writing group of the Stroke Council, American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2001;32:1458–1471.
68.
PurdyPDBatjerHHRisserRC. Arteriovenous malformations of the brain: choosing embolic materials to enhance safety and ease of excision. J Neurosurg. 1992;77:217–222.
69.
HenkesHNahserHCBerg-DammerE. Endovascular therapy of brain AVMs prior to radiosurgery. Neurol Res.1998;20:479–492.
70.
JafarJJDavisAJBerensteinA. The effect of embolization with N-butyl cyanoacrylate prior to surgical resection of cerebral arteriovenous malformations. J Neurosurg. 1993;78:60–69.
71.
DeMerittJSPile-SpellmanJMastH. Outcome analysis of preoperative embolization with N-butyl cyanoacrylate in cerebral arteriovenous malformations. AJNR Am J Neurorad. 1995;16:1801–1807.
72.
n-BCA Trial Investigators. N-butyl cyanoacrylate embolization of cerebral arteriovenous malformations: results of a prospective, randomized, multi-center trial. AJNR Am J Neurorad. 2002;23:748–755.
73.
GobinYPLaurentAMerienneL. Treatment of brain arteriovenous malformations by embolization and radiosurgery. J Neurosurg. 1996;85:19–28.
74.
RoyDRaymondJ. The role of transvenous embolization in the treatment of intracranial dural arteriovenous fistulas. Neurosurgery. 1997;40:1133–1144.
75.
MurphyKJGailloudPVenbruxA. Endovascular treatment of a grade IV transverse sinus dural arteriovenous fistula by sinus recanalization, angioplasty, and stent placement: technical case report. Neurosurgery. 2000;46:497–501.
76.
LiYChenJWangL. Treatment of stroke in a rat with intracarotid administration of marrow stromal cells. Neurology. 2001;56:1666–1672.
77.
ZlokovicBVApuzzoML. Cellular and molecular neurosurgery: pathways from concept to reality: vector systems and delivery methodologies for gene therapy of the central nervous system. Neurosurgery. 1997;40:805–813.
