The newly established national Safe Routes to School (SRTS) program has the potential to positively influence individuals, communities, and the environment regardless of race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. Many communities are applying their interest in physical activity promotion toward creating policies and programs to encourage active travel, though many barriers exist. SRTS legislation provides funds to address some of the barriers and improve the ability of students to safely walk and bicycle to school. SRTS requires that 70% to 90% of the funds be used for infrastructure projects (i.e., engineering treatments, such as sidewalk construction), and 10% to 30% for noninfrastructure activities, such as education, encouragement, and enforcement. The socioecological model (SEM) is widely used in public health and includes five levels of influence on behavior, from individual to public policy. Application of the SEM to SRTS provides a framework for a comprehensive approach to improve active travel to school.
Acevedo-Garcia, D., Lochner, K.A., Osypuk, T.L., & Subramanian, S.V. (2003). Future directions in residential segregation and health research: A multilevel approach. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2), 215-221.
2.
Beaumont, C., & Pianca, E. ( 2002). Why Johnny can’t walk to school (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: National Trust for Historic Preservation.
3.
Boarnet, M.G., Anderson, C.L., Day, K., McMillan, T., & Alfonzo, M. ( 2005). Evaluation of the California Safe Routes to School legislation: Urban form changes and children’s active transportation to school. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28(2 Suppl 2), 134-140.
4.
Brownson, R.C., Baker, E.A., Housemann, R.A., Brennan, L.K., & Bacak, S.J. ( 2001). Environmental and policy determinants of physical activity in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 91(12), 1995-2003.
5.
Brownson, R.C., Housemann, R.A., Brown, D.R., Jackson-Thompson, J., King, A.C., Malone, B.R., et al. (2000). Promoting physical activity in rural communities: Walking trail access, use, and effects. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 18(3), 235-241.
6.
Bullard, R.D., & Johnson, G.S. ( 1997). Just transportation: Dismantling race and class barriers to mobility. Gabriola Island, BC, andStony Creek, CT: New Society Publishers.
7.
Carlin, J.B., Stevenson, M.R., Roberts, I., Bennett, C.M., Gelman, A., & Nolan, T. ( 1997). Walking to school and traffic exposure inAustralian children. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 21(3), 286-292.
8.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. ( 2002). Barriers to children walking and biking to school-United States, 1999. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 51(32), 701-704.
9.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. ( 2003). Physical activity levels among children aged 9-13 Years-United States, 2002. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 52(33), 785-788.
10.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. ( 2005). Barriers to children walking to or from school-United States, 2004. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 54, 949-952.
11.
City of Phoenix Street Transportation Department. ( 2004). Street modernization program. Phoenix, AZ: Author.
12.
Cooper, A.R., Andersen, L.B., Wedderkopp, N., Page, A.S., & Froberg, K. ( 2005). Physical activity levels of children who walk, cycle, or are driven to school. American Journal of Preventive Medicine , 29(3), 179-184.
13.
Cooper, A.R., Page, A.S., Foster, L.J., & Qahwaji, D. ( 2003). Commuting to school: Are children who walk more physically active? American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 25(4), 273-276.
14.
Council of Economic Advisors for the President’s Initiative on Race. (1998). Changing America: Indicators of social and economic well-being by race and Hispanic origin. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved May 5, 2006, from http://www.access.gpo.gov/eop/ca/index.html
15.
Evenson, K.R., Huston, S.L., McMillen, B.J., Bors, P., & Ward, D.S. ( 2003). Statewide prevalence and correlates of walking and bicycling to school. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 157(9), 887-892.
16.
Fulton, J.E., Shisler, J.L., Yore, M.M., & Caspersen, C.J. (2005). Active transportation to school: Findings from a national survey. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 76(3), 352-357.
17.
Gordon-Larsen, P., Nelson, M.C., Page, P., & Popkin, B.M. ( 2006). Inequality in the built environment underlies key health disparities in physical activity and obesity. Pediatrics, 117(2), 417-424.
18.
Heath, G.W., Brownson, R.C., Kruger, J., Miles, R., Powell, K.E., Ramsey, L.T., et al. (2006). The effectiveness of urban design and land use and transport policies and practices to increase physical activity: A systematic review. Journal of Physical Activity and Health3(Suppl 1), S55-S76.
19.
Henderson, K.A., & Ainsworth, B.E. (2000). Enablers and constraints to walking for older African American and American Indian women: The Cultural Activity Participation Study. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71(4), 313-321.
20.
Kahn, E.B., Ramsey, L.T., Brownson, R.C., Heath, G.W., Howze, E.H., Powell, K.E., et al. (2002). The effectiveness of interventions to increase physical activity. A systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 22(4 Suppl), 73-107.
21.
King, A., Castro, C., Wilcox, S., Eyler, A.A., Sallis, J.F., & Brownson, R.C. (2000). Personal and environmental factors associated with physical inactivity among different racial/ethnic groups of US middle- and older-aged women. Health Psychology , 19(4), 354-364.
22.
King, A.C., Stokols, D., Talen, E., Brassington, G.S., & Killingsworth, R. (2002). Theoretical approaches to the promotion of physical activity: Forging a transdisciplinary paradigm . American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 23(2 Suppl), 15-25.
23.
Leden, L., Wikstrom, P.E., Garder, P., & Rosander, P. ( 2006). Safety and accessibility effects of code modification and traffic calming of an arterial road. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 38, 455-461.
24.
Mackett, R., Lucas, L., Pasking, J., & Turbin, J. ( 2005). Walking buses in Hertforshire: Impacts and lessons. London: Centre for Transport Studies, University College London.
25.
Mather, M., & Rivers, K.L. ( 2006). A KIDS COUNT/PRB Report on Census 2000: The concentration of negative child outcomes in low-income neighborhoods. Washington, DC and Baltimore, MD: Population Reference Bureau and The Annie E. Casey Foundation. Available from the Anne E. Casey Foundation Web site, http://www.aecf.org
26.
McLeroy, K.R., Bibeau, D., Steckler, A., & Glanz, K. ( 1988). An ecological perspective on health promotion programs . Health Education Quarterly, 15(4), 351-377.
27.
Molnar, B.E., Gortmaker, S.L., Bull, F.C., & Buka, S.L. ( 2004). Unsafe to play? Neighborhood disorder and lack of safety predict reduced physical activity among urban children and adolescents. American Journal of Health Promotion, 18(5), 378-386.
28.
Nantulya, V.M., & Reich, M.R. ( 2003). Equity dimensions of road traffic injuries in low- and middle-income countries. Injury Control and Safety Promotion , 10(1-2), 13-20.
29.
National Center for Education Statistics. ( 2003, October). Table 36: Historical summary of public elementary and secondary school statistics: Selected years, 1869-70 to 2000-01; Table 85: Number of public school districts and public and private elementary and secondary schools: Selected years, 1869-70 to 2001-02. Retrieved July 21, 2005, from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d03/tables/pdf/table36.pdf;http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d03/tables/pdf/table85.pdf
30.
National Center for Safe Routes to School. ( 2007a, January). Categorization of state SRTS applications. Retrieved April 6, 2007, from http://drusilla.hsrc.unc.edu/cms/downloads/SRTS_Applications_Categorized_3.06.07.pdf
31.
National Center for Safe Routes to School. ( 2007b, February). SRTS program tracking brief. Retrieved April 6, 2007, from http://www.saferoutesinfo.org/resources/collateral/status_report/february_2007.pdf
32.
National Safe Kids Campaign. (2002). Promoting child safety to prevent unintentional injury. Research: Child pedestrian safety: The problem. Washington, DC: Safe Kids. Retrieved July 21, 2005, from http://www.usa.safekids.org/tier3_cd.cfm?content_item_id=7570&folder_id=680
33.
National Safe Kids Campaign. (2004). Injury facts: Pedestrian injury. Washington, DC: Safe Kids. Retrieved July 21, 2005, from www.usa.safekids.org/tier3_cd.cfm?content_item_id=1150&folder_id=540
34.
Orenstein, M.R., Gutierrez, N., Rice, T.M., Cooper, J.F., & Raglund, D.R. ( 2007, January). Safe Routes to School safety and mobility analysis: Report to the California Legislature. Sacramento: California Department of Transportation.
35.
Powell, L.M., Slater, S., & Chaloupka, F.J. (2004). The relationship between community physical activity settings and race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Evidence-based Preventive Medicine, 1(2), 135-144.
36.
Rodgers, G.B. ( 2002). Effects of state helmet laws on bicycle helmet use by children and adolescents. Injury Prevention, 8, 42-46.
37.
SAFETEA-LU-Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-59 (2005).
38.
Sallis, J.F., Cervero, R., Ascher, W.W., Henderson, K., Kraft, M.K., & Kerr, J. ( 2006). An ecological approach to creating active living communities . Annual Reviews in Public Health, 27, 14.1-14.26.
39.
Staunton, C.E., Hubsmith, D., & Kallins, W. ( 2003). Promoting safe walking and biking to school: The Marin County success story. American Journal of Public Health, 93(9), 1431-1434.
40.
Taylor, W.C., Carlos Poston, W.S., Jones, L., & Kraft, M.K. ( 2006). Environmental justice: Obesity, physical activity, and healthy eating. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 3(Suppl 1), S30-S54.
41.
Tester, J., Rutherford, G., Wald, Z., & Rutherford, M. (2004). A matched case-Control study evaluating the effectiveness of speed humps in reducing child pedestrian injuries. American Journal of Public Health, 94(4), 646-650.
42.
Tudor-Locke, C., Ainsworth, B.E., Adair, L.S., & Popkin, B.M. ( 2003). Objective physical activity of Filipino youth stratified for commuting mode to school. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 35(3), 465-471.
43.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. ( 1996). Physical activity and health. A report of the surgeon general. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
44.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. ( 2000). Healthy people 2010 (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
45.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2005). Dietary guidelines for Americans. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
46.
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. (2001). National household transportation survey. Retrieved July 21, 2005, from http://nhts.ornl.gov/2001/index.shtml
47.
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. (2003). 1969 national personal transportation survey: Travel to school, June 1972. Retrieved July 21, 2005 , from http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ohim/1969/1969page.htm
48.
U.S. Department of Transportation. (1994). National bicycling and walking study. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration.
49.
U.S. Department of Transportation.Program legislation- SAFETEA-LU. Retrieved February 16, 2006, from http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/saferoutes/legislation.htm
50.
Wilbur, J., Chandler, P.J., Dancy, B., & Lee, H. ( 2003). Correlates of physical activity in urban Midwestern African-American women. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 25(3 Suppl 1), 45-52.
51.
Williams, D.R., & Collins, C. ( 2001). Racial residential segregation: A fundamental cause of racial disparities in health. Public Health Reports, 116, 404-416.
52.
Wilson, D.K., Kirtland, K.A., Ainsworth, B.E., & Addy, C.L. ( 2004). Socioeconomic status and perceptions of access and safety for physical activity. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 28(1), 20-28.
