The incidence of domestic violence (DV) in children with disabilities (CWD) is increasing, making it crucial to assess associated risk and protective factors. Following the PRISMA-ScR guidelines, this scoping review aimed to assess the risk and protective factors for DV in CWD, review the current research progress, and highlight knowledge gaps to guide future studies. Six electronic databases were searched for studies published up to July 2025. Preliminary searches identified 1,564 records. After removing duplicates, non-English publications, and studies that did not meet the inclusion criteria, 19 articles were included. Given publication bias and lack of formal quality appraisal, findings should be interpreted as a map of current evidence rather than definitive effect estimates. The results demonstrate that risk factors across individual, microsystem (familial), and macrosystem (societal) levels can interact to compound vulnerability. Specific disability types (especially cognitive and neurodevelopmental disorders), certain child-related characteristics (especially disability severity, physical/mental comorbidities), family-originated characteristics (especially poor parental health, substance abuse, low education, violence history, economic difficulties), and societal risk factors (living in conflict-affected areas) may increase victimization risks. Higher parental education, greater family affluence, and positive parent–child relationships appear to mitigate the risk of violence. This study underscores the critical need for a multi-tiered intervention framework to safeguard CWD from DV. This necessitates integrated measures encompassing: enhancing legal protections and policy enforcement, establishing robust violence assessment and identification protocols specifically for CWD, providing targeted economic assistance to disadvantaged families, and implementing comprehensive societal awareness campaigns against violence.
Abi RachedM.HankirA.ZamanR. (2021). Patriarchal upbringing in the 21(st) century: The impact emotional abuse related to parental styles has on the genesis of gender inequality and the development of unresolved trauma in children. Psychiatria Danubina, 33(Suppl 11), 121–132.
2.
AccardoA. L.NeelyL. C.PontesN. M. H.PontesM. C. F. (2024). Bullying victimization is associated with heightened rates of anxiety and depression among autistic and ADHD youth: National Survey of Children’s Health 2016–2020. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 1–17.
3.
AfiazA.MasudM. S.MansurM. (2021). Impact of child’s cognitive and social-emotional difficulties on child abuse: Does mother’s justification of intimate partner violence also play a role?Child Abuse & Neglect, 117, 105028.
4.
BallanM. S.FreyerM.RomanelliM. (2022). Intimate partner violence, disability, and pain: A retrospective study. Journal of Family Violence, 37(8), 1367–1378.
5.
BlackwellA. H.de Dieu HategekimanaJ.BaumaD.RothD.ThivillierP.O’ConnorM.FalbK. (2023). Violent discipline in North Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo: The role of child gender and disability status in cross-sectional analysis. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 27(5), 861–872.
6.
BronfenbrennerU. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.
7.
BrownS. M.RhoadesG. K.MartiC. N.LewisT. (2021). The co-occurrence of child maltreatment and intimate partner violence in families: Effects on children’s externalizing behavior problems. Child Maltreatment, 26(4), 363–375.
8.
BrühlA.WardC. L.LachmanJ. M.ForanH. M.RalevaM.BabanA.HeinrichsN. (2023). Co-occurrence of intimate partner violence against mothers and maltreatment of their children with behavioral problems in Eastern Europe. Violence Against Women, 29(12–13), 2439–2463.
9.
CallaghanJ. E. M.FellinL. C.MavrouS.AlexanderJ. H.Deliyianni-KouimtzisV.SixsmithJ. (2025). Managing masculinity when growing up with a violent father: A qualitative study of boys’ experiences. Violence Against Women, 10778012241303462.
10.
ChanK. L.EmeryC. R.IpP. (2016). Children with disability are more at risk of violence victimization: Evidence from a study of school-aged Chinese children. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(6), 1026–1046.
11.
ChenR. X.GeZ. M.SuC.TangW. Z.ZhangQ. (2024). Why do families of children with disabilities discontinue using rehabilitation services? A qualitative study in rural mainland China. Social Policy and Society, 1–13.
12.
DionJ.PaquetteG.TremblayK. N.Collin-VézinaD.ChabotM. (2018). Child maltreatment among children with intellectual disability in the Canadian incidence study. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 123(2), 176–188.
13.
ElklitA.MurphyS.SkovgaardC.LaustenM. (2023). Physical violence against children with disabilities: A Danish national birth cohort prospective study. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(1), 2173764.
14.
EmersonE.LlewellynG. (2021). The exposure of children with and without disabilities to violent parental discipline: Cross-sectional surveys in 17 middle- and low-income countries. Child Abuse & Neglect, 111, 104773.
15.
FangZ.Cerna-TuroffI.ZhangC.LuM.LachmanJ. M.BarlowJ. (2022). Global estimates of violence against children with disabilities: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 6(5), 313–323.
16.
FuW.ZhangS.ZhuY.LiuR. (2025). Domestic violence and depression among Chinese adolescents: The role of self-evaluation. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 71(2), 274–282.
17.
GregoryS.ElliffeR.HoltS.DonnellanR.CahillL. (2024). Post-separation child contact and domestic violence and abuse: The experiences of children with a disability. Journal of Family Violence, 1–16.
18.
HastingsR. P.KovshoffH.WardN. J.degli EspinosaF.BrownT.RemingtonB. (2005). Systems analysis of stress and positive perceptions in mothers and fathers of pre-school children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(5), 635–644.
19.
HeltonJ. J.CrossT. P. (2011). The relationship of child functioning to parental physical assault: Linear and curvilinear models. Child Maltreatment, 16(2), 126–136.
20.
HeslonK.HansonJ. H.OgourtsovaT. (2024). Mental health in children with disabilities and their families: Red flags, services’ impact, facilitators, barriers, and proposed solutions. Frontiers in Rehabilitation Sciences, 5, 1347412.
21.
IngramK. M.EspelageD. L.DavisJ. P.MerrinG. J. (2020). Family violence, sibling, and peer aggression during adolescence: Associations with behavioral health outcomes. Front Psychiatry, 11, 26.
22.
JahngK. E. (2020). South Korean mothers’ childhood abuse experience and their abuse of their children with intellectual and developmental disabilities: Moderating effect of parenting self-efficacy. Child Abuse & Neglect, 101, 104324.
23.
JiangY.ChenJ.YuB.JinY. (2017). Physical violence against children with hearing loss by parents: A pilot study in Beijing, China. Child Abuse & Neglect, 72, 258–265.
24.
JonesL.BellisM. A.WoodS.HughesK.McCoyE.EckleyL.BatesG.MiktonC.ShakespeareT.OfficerA. (2012). Prevalence and risk of violence against children with disabilities: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. The Lancet, 380(9845), 899–907.
25.
Karni-ViselY.HershkowitzI.HershkowitzF.FlaisherM.SchertzM. (2020). Increased risk for child maltreatment in those with developmental disability: A primary health care perspective from Israel. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 106, 103763.
26.
KatzS. M.ClaussenA. H.BlackL. I.LeebR. T.NewsomeK.DanielsonM. L.ZablotskyB. (2025). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and teen self-report on health behaviors and social-emotional wellbeing: United States, July 2021–December 2022. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 46(2), e155–e161.
27.
KoivulaT.EllonenN.JansonS.JernbroC.HuhtalaH.PaavilainenE. (2018). Psychological and physical violence towards children with disabilities in Finland and Sweden. Journal of Child Health Care, 22(3), 317–331.
28.
KrellaK. A.PainterF. L.BoothA. T.Holtzworth-MunroeA.EvansE.JiangH.McIntoshJ. E. (2025). Enhancing safety for separating families affected by domestic and family violence: A scoping review of modifiable factors. Trauma Violence Abuse, 15248380251325195. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380251325195
29.
KwanC.GitimoghaddamM.ColletJ. P. (2020). Effects of social isolation and loneliness in children with neurodevelopmental disabilities: A scoping review. Brain Sciences, 10(11), 786. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci10110786
30.
LapshinaN.StewartS. L. (2021). Traumatic life events, polyvictimization, and externalizing symptoms in children with IDD and mental health problems. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 116, 104028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2021.104028
31.
MarafiotiG.BonannoL.PiccoloA.GiambòF. M.Lo BuonoV.Di CaraM.De DomenicoC.FulgenziA.LeonardiS.ImpallomeniC.TripodiE.QuartaroneA.CucinottaF. (2025). The impact of co-occurring behavioral and emotional problems on the quality of life of caregivers of autistic children: A preliminary study. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 14(10), 3319. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14103319
32.
MurphyM.EllsbergM.BalogunA.García-MorenoC. (2023). Risk and protective factors for violence against women and girls living in conflict and natural disaster-affected settings: A systematic review. Trauma Violence Abuse, 24(5), 3328–3345.
33.
MusizvingozaR.TirivayiN.OtchereF.ViolaF. (2022). Risk factors of adolescent exposure to violence in Burkina Faso. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 2405.
34.
NamatovuF.PreetR.GoicoleaI. (2018). Gender-based violence among people with disabilities is a neglected public health topic. Global Health Action, 11(sup3), 1694758.
35.
NoonanC. B.PilkingtonP. D. (2020). Intimate partner violence and child attachment: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 109, 104765.
36.
OrrC.O’DonnellM.FisherC.BellM.GlauertR.PreenD. (2022). School readiness of children exposed to family and domestic violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(21–22), np20428–np20458.
37.
SamuelD.O’MalleyF.BrinkF. W.CrichtonK. G.DuffyB.LetsonM. M.MichaelsN. L. (2023). Characterizing child maltreatment fatalities among child victims with disabilities in the United States, 2010–2019. Child Abuse & Neglect, 144, 106354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106354
38.
SeppäläP.VornanenR.ToikkoT. (2021a). Multimorbidity and polyvictimization in children: An analysis on the association of children’s disabilities and long-term illnesses with mental violence and physical violence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 122, 105350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105350.
39.
SeppäläP.VornanenR.ToikkoT. (2021b). Are children with a number of disabilities and long-term illnesses at increased risk of mental violence, disciplinary violence, and serious violence?Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(23/24), 11409–11434.
40.
SimõesA.LopesS.Dos Anjos DixeM.FernandesJ. B. (2022). Family risk factors that jeopardize child development: Scoping review. Journal of Personalized Medicine, 12(4), 562. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12040562
41.
SullivanP. M.KnutsonJ. F. (2000). Maltreatment and disabilities: A population-based epidemiological study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 24(10), 1257–1273.
42.
SutherlandG.HargraveJ.KrnjackiL.LlewellynG.KavanaghA.VaughanC. (2024). A systematic review of interventions addressing the primary prevention of violence against women with disability. Trauma Violence Abuse, 25(2), 1235–1247.
43.
Van HorneB. S.CaughyM. O.CanfieldM.CaseA. P.GreeleyC. S.MorganR.MitchellL. E. (2018). First-time maltreatment in children ages 2–10 with and without specific birth defects: A population-based study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 84, 53–63.
44.
WaidJ.Jeanie SantaulariaN.PiescherK.LaLiberteT. (2021). A latent class analysis of modifiable risk factors associated with child maltreatment re-reporting and recurrence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 120, 105249.
45.
YounasF.GutmanL. M. (2023). Parental risk and protective factors in child maltreatment: A systematic review of the evidence. Trauma Violence Abuse, 24(5), 3697–3714.
46.
ZhuJ.Exner-CortensD.DobsonK.WellsL.NoelM.MadiganS. (2024). Adverse childhood experiences and intimate partner violence: A meta-analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 36(2), 929–943.
47.
ZivY.KupermintzH. (2021). The effects of exposure to political and domestic violence on preschool children and their mothers. The International Journal of Psychology, 56(1), 12–21.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
