Sexual assault (SA) on college campuses remains a prominent public health issue. This meta-analysis focuses on identifying all potential risk markers for college male SA perpetration. Using standard search procedures, a total of 25 studies yielding 89 unique effect sizes were included in the study. Significant risk markers were related to hegemonic masculinity (e.g., peer approval of SA, rape myth acceptance, sexist beliefs, hostility towards women), other forms of dating violence perpetration (e.g., physical and psychological dating violence perpetration), and the college party culture (e.g., binge drinking, alcohol and substance use, frequency of hook-ups). Psychological dating violence victimization, athletic team membership, race/ethnicity, relationship status, and religiosity were not significant risk markers for SA perpetration. Findings support potential benefits of SA prevention efforts prioritizing peer education/student leaders modeling SA disapproval, challenging hegemonic masculinity, healthy relationship and sexual education, as well as alcohol and substance use awareness.
*Indicates the study was included in the meta-analysis
2.
AbbeyA. (2002). Alcohol-related sexual assault: A common problem among college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. Supplement, (14), 118–128. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsas.2002.s14.118
3.
AbbeyA. (2011). Alcohol's role in sexual violence perpetration: Theoretical explanations, existing evidence and future directions. Drug and Alcohol Review, 30(5), 481–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2011.00296.x
4.
AbbeyA.WegnerR.PierceJ.Jacques-TiuraA. J. (2012). Patterns of sexual aggression in a community sample of young men: Risk factors associated with persistence, desistance, and initiation over a 1-year interval. Psychology of violence, 2(1), 1–15.
5.
American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Author.
6.
*AosvedA. C. (2006). The role of intolerant attitudes, beliefs, and rape proclivity in perpetration of sexual aggression. Oklahoma State University.
7.
AosvedA. C.LongP. J. (2006). Co-occurrence of rape myth acceptance, sexism, racism, homophobia, ageism, classism, and religious intolerance. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 55(7–8), 481–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9101-4
8.
ArmstrongE. A.Gleckman-KrutM.JohnsonL. (2018). Silence, power, and inequality: An intersectional approach to sexual violence. Annual Review of Sociology, 44(1), 99–122. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-073117-041410
9.
ArmstrongE. A.HamiltonL.SweeneyB. (2006). Sexual assault on campus: A multilevel, integrative approach to party rape. Social Problems, 53(4), 483–499. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2006.53.4.483
10.
AronowitzT.LambertC. A.DavidoffS. (2012). The role of rape myth acceptance in the social norms regarding sexual behavior among college students. Journal of Community Health Nursing, 29(3), 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370016.2012.697852
11.
BarnettM. D.SligarK. B.WangC. D. C. (2018). Religious affiliation, religiosity, gender, and rape myth acceptance: Feminist theory and rape culture. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(8), 1219–1235. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516665110
12.
BasileK. C.SmithS. G. (2011). Sexual violence victimization of women: Prevalence, characteristics, and the role of public health and prevention. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 5(5), 407–417. https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827611409512
13.
BasileK. C.SmithS. G.BreidingM.BlackM. C.MahendraR. R. (2014). Sexual violence surveillance: Uniform definitions and recommended data elements. Version 2.0. Atlanta (GA): National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
14.
BlackM. C.BasileK. C.BreidingM. J.SmithS. G.WaltersM. L.MerrickM. T.ChenJ.StevensM. R. (2011). National intimate partner and sexual violence survey (NISVS): 2010 summary report. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
15.
BonarE. E.DeGueS.AbbeyA.CokerA. L.LindquistC. H.McCauleyH. L.MillerE.SennC. Y.ThompsonM. P.NgoQ. M.CunninghamR. M.WaltonM. A. (2020). Prevention of sexual violence among college students: Current challenges and future directions.Journal of American College Health. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2020.1757681
BorensteinM.HedgesL. V.HigginsJ. P.RothsteinH. R. (2011). Introduction to meta- analysis. Wiley.
18.
BorensteinM.HedgesL. V.HigginsJ. P. T.RothensteinH. R. (2010). A basic introduction to fixed-effect and random-effects models for meta-analysis. Research Synthesis Methods, 1(2), 97–111. https://doi.org/10. 1002/jrsm.12
19.
BoyleK. M.WalkerL. S. (2016). The neutralization and denial of sexual violence in college party subcultures. Deviant Behavior, 37(12), 1392–1410. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2016.1185862
20.
BrownmillerS. (1975). Against our will: Men, women, and rape. Fawcett Books.
*CalzadaE. J.BrownE. J.DoyleM. E. (2011). Psychiatric symptoms as a predictor of sexual aggression among male college students. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 20(7), 726–740. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2011.608184
CardN. A. (2012). Applied meta-analysis for social science research. Guilford Press.
25.
CareyK. B.NorrisA. L.DurneyS. E.ShepardsonR. L.CareyM. P. (2018). Mental health consequences of sexual assault among first-year college women. Journal of American College Health, 66(6), 480–486. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2018.1431915
26.
CaseyE. A.MastersN. T.BeadnellB.HoppeM. J.MorrisonD. M.WellsE. A. (2017). Predicting sexual assault perpetration among heterosexually active young men. Violence Against Women, 23(1), 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801216634467
CokerA. L.FisherB. S.BushH. M.SwanS. C.WilliamsC. M.ClearE. R.DeGueS. (2015). Evaluation of the Green Dot bystander intervention to reduce interpersonal violence among college students across three campuses. Violence Against Women, 21(12), 1507–1527. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801214545284
29.
ConnellR. W.MesserschmidtJ. W. (2005). Hegemonic masculinity: Rethinking the concept. Gender & Society, 19(6), 829–859. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205278639
30.
CummingG. (2012). Understanding the new statistics: Effect sizes, confidence intervals, and meta-analysis. Routledge.
31.
DeKeseredyW. S.SchwartzM. D.NolanJ.MastronN.Hall-SanchezA. (2019). Polyvictimization and the continuum of sexual abuse at a college campus: Does negative peer support increase the likelihood of multiple victimizations?The British Journal of Criminology, 59(2), 276–295. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azy036
32.
*DietzelB. J (2008). Emotion recognition and the propensity to engage in sexually coercive behaviors: A study with college males. Western Michigan University.
33.
DuvalS.TweedieR. (2000). Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics, 56(2), 455-463. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0006-341x.2000.00455.x
34.
EdwardsK. E.JonesS. R. (2009). “Putting my man face on”: A grounded theory of college men's gender identity development. Journal of College Student Development, 50(2), 210–228. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.0.0063
35.
EisenbergM. E.LustK. A.HannanP. J.PortaC. (2016). Campus sexual violence resources and emotional health of college women who have experienced sexual assault. Violence and Victims, 31(2), 274-284. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-14-00049
36.
*EmanueleJ. M. (2002). Protection against relationship violence? The role of risk and protective factors in a theoretical model. George Mason University.
37.
FedinaL.HolmesJ. L.BackesB. L. (2018). Campus sexual assault: A systematic review of prevalence research from 2000 to 2015. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 19(1), 76–93. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016631129
38.
GansonK. T.RodgersR. F.LipsonS. K.CadetT. J.PutnamM. (2020). Sexual assault victimization and eating disorders among college-enrolled men. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520958634
39.
*GidyczC. A.WarkentinJ. B.OrchowskiL. M. (2007). Predictors of perpetration of verbal, physical, and sexual violence: A prospective analysis of college men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 8(2), 79–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.8.2.79
40.
*HagenT.ThompsonM. P.WilliamsJ. (2018). Religiosity reduces sexual aggression and coercion in a longitudinal cohort of college men: Mediating roles of peer norms, promiscuity, and pornography. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 57(1), 95–108. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12496
41.
*HarnedM. S. (2002). Women's* labeling of unwanted sexual experiences with dating partners: Measurement and conceptual issues. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
42.
HarrisF.III.StruveL. E. (2009). Gents, jerks, and jocks: What male students learn about masculinity in college. About Campus, 14(3), 2–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/abc.289
43.
HockettJ. M.SaucierD. A.HoffmanB. H.SmithS. J.CraigA. W. (2009). Oppression through acceptance? Predicting rape myth acceptance and attitudes toward rape victims. Violence Against Women, 15(8), 877–897.
44.
HollandK. J.GustafsonA. M.CortinaL. M.CiprianoA. E. (2020). Supporting survivors: The roles of rape myths and feminism in university resident assistants’ response to sexual assault disclosure scenarios. Sex Roles, 82(3), 206–218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-01048-6
45.
hooksB (2000). Feminism is for everybody: Passionate politics. Pluto Press.
46.
*Jacques-TiuraA. J. (2010). Guy time: The effects of men's male friends on their heavy drinking, consensual sexual behaviors, and sexual assault perpetration. Wayne State University.
47.
*JamesB. R. (2012). Beliefs of and attitudes toward sexual violence by a diverse group of self-identified male collegiate athletes. University of South Florida.
48.
*JohnsT. L. (2001). Alcohol and sexual aggression on campus. University of Florida.
*KingreeJ. B.ThompsonM. P. (2013). Fraternity membership and sexual aggression: An examination of mediators of the association. Journal of American College Health, 61(4), 213–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2013.781026
51.
*KingreeJ. B.ThompsonM. (2015). A comparison of risk factors for alcohol-involved and alcohol-uninvolved sexual aggression perpetration. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(9), 1478–1492. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514540806
52.
*KingreeJ. B.ThompsonM.RuetzE. (2017). Heavy episodic drinking and sexual aggression among male college students: The protective influence of church attendance. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(4), 604–620. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515586372
53.
LittletonH.HendersonC. E. (2009). If she is not a victim, does that mean she was not traumatized? Evaluation of predictors of PTSD symptomology among college rape victims. Violence and Victims, 15(2), 148–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329386
54.
LohC.GidyczC. A.LoboT. R.LuthraR. (2005). A prospective analysis of sexual assault perpetration: Risk factors related to perpetrator characteristics. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(10), 1325–1348. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260505278528
LonswayK. A.FitzgeraldL. F. (1994). Rape myths: In review. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18(2), 133–164. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb00448.x
57.
LonswayK. A.FitzgeraldL. F. (1995). Attitudinal antecedents of rape myth acceptance: A theoretical and empirical reexamination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(4), 704–711. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.4.704
58.
LorenzK.UllmanS. E. (2016). Alcohol and sexual assault victimization: Research findings and future directions. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 31, 82–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2016.08.001
59.
McMahonS. (2010). Rape myth beliefs and bystander attitudes among incoming college students. Journal of American College Health, 59(1), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2010.483715
60.
McMahonS. (2015). Call for research on bystander intervention to prevent sexual violence: The role of campus environments. American Journal of Community Psychology, 55(3–4), 472–489. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-015-9724-0
61.
*MénardK. S.HallG. C. N.PhungA. H.GhebrialM. F. E.MartinL. (2003). Gender differences in sexual harassment and coercion in college students: Developmental, individual, and situational determinants. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18(10), 1222–1239. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260503256654
62.
MengoC.BlackB. M. (2016). Violence victimization on a college campus: Impact on GPA and school dropout. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 18(2), 234–248. https://doi.org/10.1177/1521025115584750
63.
MesserschmidtJ. W. (2000). Becoming “real men”: Adolescent masculinity challenges and sexual violence. Men and Masculinities, 2(3), 286–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X00002003003
64.
MesserschmidtJ. W. (2017). Adolescent boys, embodied heteromasculinities and sexual violence. Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal, 7(2), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.26529/cepsj.172
65.
MonksS. M.TomakaJ.PalaciosR.ThompsonS. E. (2010). Sexual victimization in female and male college students: Examining the roles of alcohol use, alcohol expectancies, and sexual sensation seeking. Substance Use & Misuse, 45(13), 2258–2280. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826081003694854
66.
MurnenS. K.KohlmanM. H. (2007). Athletic participation, fraternity membership, and sexual aggression among college men: A meta-analytic review. Sex Roles, 57(1–2), 145–157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9225-1
67.
*OrchowskiL. M.BerkowitzA.BoggisJ.OesterleD. (2016). Bystander intervention among college men: The role of alcohol and correlates of sexual aggression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(17), 2824–2846. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515581904
68.
PemmentJ. (2013). The neurobiology of antisocial personality disorder: The quest for rehabilitation and treatment. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18(1), 79–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.10.004
69.
*RichardsonC. (2019). I imagine the male isn't in the video and it is me:" A mixed methods study of Internet pornography, masculinity, and sexual aggression in emerging adulthood. Doctoral dissertation. The University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
RossJ. M.DrouinM.CoupeA. (2016). Sexting coercion as a component of intimate partner polyvictimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(11), 2269–2291. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516660300
72.
*ShoreyR. C.ElmquistJ.ZucoskyH.FebresJ.BrasfieldH.StuartG. L. (2014). Experiential avoidance and male dating violence perpetration: An initial investigation. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 3(2), 117–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2014.02.003
73.
SnyderJ. A.SchererH. L.FisherB. S. (2021). Poly-victimization among female college students: Are the risk factors the same as those who experience one type of victimization?Violence Against Women, 27(10), 1716–1735. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801220952176
74.
SteeleB.MartinM.YakubovichA.HumphreysD. K.NyeE. (2020). Risk and protective factors for men’s sexual violence against women at higher education institutions: A systematic and meta-analytic review of the longitudinal evidence. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. Advanced Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838020970900
75.
StrangE.PetersonZ. D. (2020). Use of a bogus pipeline to detect men’s underreporting of sexually aggressive behavior. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(1–2), 208–232. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516681157
76.
*SuttonT. E.SimonsL. G. (2015). Sexual assault among college students: Family of origin hostility, attachment, and the hook-up culture as risk factors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(10), 2827–2840. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-0087-1
77.
*TestaM.ClevelandM. J. (2017). Does alcohol contribute to college men’s sexual assault perpetration? Between- and within-person effects over five semesters. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 78(1), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2017.78.5
78.
TharpA. T.DeGueS.ValleL. A.BrookmeyerK. A.MassettiG. M.MatjaskoJ. L. (2013). A systematic qualitative review of risk and protective factors for sexual violence perpetration. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 14(2), 133–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838012470031
79.
ThompsonE. H.Jr.CraccoE. J. (2008). Sexual aggression in bars: What college men can normalize. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 16(1), 82-96. https://doi.org/10.3149/jms.1601.82
80.
ThompsonM. P.KossM. P.KingreeJ. B.GoreeJ.RiceJ. (2011). A prospective mediational model of sexual aggression among college men. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(13), 2716–2734. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510388285
81.
UllmanS. E.RelyeaM.Peter-HageneL.VasquezA. L. (2013). Trauma histories, substance use coping, PTSD, and problem substance use among sexual assault victims. Addictive Behaviors, 38(6), 2219–2223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.01.027
82.
*VollerE. K. (2009). Personality variables in rape and sexual assault perpetration by college men: Psychopathy and the Five-Factor Model. Oklahoma State University.
*WaltersG. D. (2019). Sex offending and the transition from adolescence to adulthood: A cross-lagged analysis of general offending and sexual assault in college males. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(6), 1311–1328. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516651095
86.
WeiserD. A. (2017). Confronting myths about sexual assault: A feminist analysis of the false report literature. Family Relations, 66(1), 46–60. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12235
87.
WhiteJ. W.SmithP. H. (2004). Sexual assault perpetration and reperpetration: From adolescence to young adulthood. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 31(2), 182–202. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854803261342
88.
YappE. J.QuayleE. (2018). A systematic review of the association between rape myth acceptance and male-on-female sexual violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 41(■■■), 1–19. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.05.002
89.
ZinzowH. M.ThompsonM. (2019). Beliefs about consent and sexual assault perpetration in a longitudinal study of college men. Violence and Victims, 34(3), 548–565. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-18-00014
90.
YlloK. A. (2005). Through a feminist lens. Current Controversies in Family Violence, 19-34.Astin, A.W. (1993). What matters in college? Four critical years revisited.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
91.
*ZinzowH. M.ThompsonM. (2015). A longitudinal study of risk factors for repeated sexual coercion and assault in US college men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44(1), 213–222. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-013-0243-5
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
