Childhood maltreatment (CM) and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are two primary forms of interpersonal victimization that have been associated with a host of deleterious health outcomes. Studies over the past decade have begun to use a range of biologically informed methods to better understand the role biology plays in the relationship between CM, ACEs, and later life outcomes. This line of research has shown that both forms of victimization occur at sensitive periods of development, which can increase the likelihood of “getting under the skin” and influence health and behavior across the life course. This review examines the current state of knowledge on this hypothesis. One hundred and ninety-nine studies are included in this systematic review based on criteria that they be written in English, use a biologically informed method, and be conducted on samples of humans. Results reveal that latent additive genetic influences, biological system functioning captured by biomarkers, polygenic risk scores, and neurobiological factors are commonly associated with exposure and response to CM and ACEs. The implication of these findings for the existing body of research on early life victimization and recommendations for future research and policy are discussed.
*AasM.DiesetI.HopeS.HosethE.MørchR.ReponenE.SteenN. E.LaskemoenJ. F.UelandT.AukrustP.AgartzI.AndreassenO. A.MelleI. (2017). Childhood maltreatment severity is associated with elevated C-reactive protein and body mass index in adults with schizophrenia and bipolar diagnoses. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 65, 342–349.
2.
*AasM.PizzagalliD. A.LaskemoenJ. F.ReponenE. J.UelandT.MelleI.AgartzI.SteenN. E.AndreassenO. A. (2019). Elevated hair cortisol is associated with childhood maltreatment and cognitive impairment in schizophrenia and in bipolar disorders. Schizophrenia Research, 213, 65–71.
3.
*AhnS. J.KyeongS.SuhS. H.KimJ.-J.ChungT.-S.SeokJ.-H. (2016). What is the impact of child abuse on gray matter abnormalities in individuals with major depressive disorder: A case control study. BMC Psychiatry, 16, 397.
4.
*AnandA.KollerD. L.LawsonW. B.GershonE. S.NurnbergerJ. I. (2015). Genetic and childhood trauma interaction effect on age of onset in bipolar disorder: An exploratory analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 179, 1–5.
5.
*ArseneaultL.CannonM.FisherH. L.PolanczykG.MoffittT. E.CaspiA. (2011). Childhood trauma and children’s emerging psychotic symptoms: A genetically sensitive longitudinal cohort study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(1), 65–72.
6.
*BaldwinJ. R.ArseneaultL.CaspiA.FisherH. L.MoffittT. E.OdgersC. L.ParianteC.AmblerA.DoveR.KepaA.MatthewsT.MenardA.SugdenK.WilliamsB.DaneseA. (2018). Childhood victimization and inflammation in young adulthood: A genetically sensitive cohort study. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 67, 211–217.
7.
BarnesJ. C.BeaverK. M. (2012). Extending research on the victim–offender overlap: Evidence from a genetically informative analysis. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(16), 3299–3321.
8.
*BeckleyA. L.CaspiA.ArseneaultL.BarnesJ. C.FisherH. L.HarringtonH.HoutsR.MorganN.OdgersC. L.WertzJ.MoffittT. E. (2018). The developmental nature of the victim-offender overlap. Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology, 4(1), 24–49.
9.
BelskyJ.PluessM. (2013). Beyond risk, resilience, and dysregulation: Phenotypic plasticity and human development. Development and Psychopathology, 25(2), 1243–1261.
10.
*BerenzE. C.AmstadterA. B.AggenS. H.KnudsenG. P.Reichborn-KjennerudT.GardnerC. O.KendlerK. S. (2013). Childhood trauma and personality disorder criterion counts: A co-twin control analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(4), 1070–1076.
11.
BlancoL.NydeggerL. A.CamarilloG.TrinidadD. R.SchrammE.AmesS. L. (2015). Neurological changes in brain structure and functions among individuals with a history of childhood sexual abuse: A review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 57, 63–69.
12.
*BomyeaJ.SimmonsA. N.ShentonM. E.ColemanM. J.BouixS.RathiY.PasternakO.CoimbraR.ShutterL.GeorgeM. S.GrantG.ZafonteR. D.McAllisterT. W.SteinM. B., & INTRuST consortium. (2020). Neurocognitive markers of childhood abuse in individuals with PTSD: Findings from the INTRuST clinical Consortium. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 121, 108–117.
13.
BoparaiS. K. P.AuV.KoitaK.OhD. L.BrinerS.HarrisN. B.BucciM. (2018). Ameliorating the biological impacts of childhood adversity: A review of intervention programs. Child Abuse & Neglect, 81, 82–105.
14.
*BornovalovaM. A.HuibregtseB. M.HicksB. M.KeyesM.McGueM.IaconoW. (2013). Tests of a direct effect of childhood abuse on adult borderline personality disorder traits: A longitudinal discordant twin design. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(1), 180.
15.
BousmanC. A.GunnJ. M.PotiriadisM.EverallI. P. (2017). Polygenic phenotypic plasticity moderates the effects of severe childhood abuse on depressive symptom severity in adulthood: A 5-year prospective cohort study. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 18(1), 75–81.
16.
*BowesL.MaughanB.BallH.ShakoorS.Ouellet-MorinI.CaspiA.MoffittT. E.ArseneaultL. (2013). Chronic bullying victimization across school transitions: The role of genetic and environmental influences. Development & Psychopathology, 25(2), 333–346.
17.
BronfenbrennerU.MorrisP. A. (2007). The bioecological model of human development. In DamnW.LernerR. M.RenningerK. A.SigelI. E. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (pp. 793–825). John Wiley & Sons.
18.
*BückerJ.FriesG. R.KapczinskiF.PostR. M.YathamL. N.ViannaP.Bogo ChiesJ. A.GamaC. S.MagalhãesP. V.AguiarB. W.PfaffensellerB.Kauer-Sant’AnnaM. (2015). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and inflammatory markers in school-aged children with early trauma. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 131(5), 360–368.
19.
*BussoD. S.McLaughlinK. A.BrueckS.PeverillM.GoldA. L.SheridanM. A. (2017). Child abuse, neural structure, and adolescent psychopathology: A longitudinal study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(4), 321–328.
20.
CarrionV. G.WongS. S.KletterH. (2013). Update on neuroimaging and cognitive functioning in maltreatment-related pediatric PTSD: Treatment implications. Journal of Family Violence, 28(1), 53–61.
21.
*CarrollJ. E.GruenewaldT. L.TaylorS. E.Janicki-DevertsD.MatthewsK. A.SeemanT. E. (2013). Childhood abuse, parental warmth, and adult multisystem biological risk in the coronary artery risk development in young adults study. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110(42), 17149–17153.
22.
CassiersL. L. M.SabbeB. G. C.SchmaalL.VeltmanD. J.PenninxB. W. J. H.Van Den EedeF. (2018). Structural and functional brain abnormalities associated with exposure to different childhood trauma subtypes: A systematic review of neuroimaging findings. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 329.
23.
CecilC. A. M.ZhangY.NolteT. (2020). Childhood maltreatment and DNA methylation: A systematic review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 112, 392–409.
24.
CicchettiD.RogoschF. A. (2012). Neuroendocrine regulation and emotional adaptation in the context of child maltreatment. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 77(2), 87–95.
25.
*CicchettiD.WellerJ. A.LeveL. D.KimH. K.BhimjiJ.FisherP. A. (2015). Plasticity of risky decision making among maltreated adolescents: Evidence from a randomized controlled trial. Development & Psychopathology, 27(2), 535–551.
26.
CoatesD. (2010). Impact of childhood abuse: Biopsychosocial pathways through which adult mental health is compromised. Australian Social Work, 63(4), 391–403.
27.
ConnollyE. J. (2020). Further evaluating the relationship between adverse childhood experiences, antisocial behavior, and violent victimization: A sibling-comparison analysis. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 18(1), 3–23.
28.
*ConnollyE. J.KavishN. (2019). The causal relationship between childhood adversity and developmental trajectories of delinquency: A consideration of genetic and environmental confounds. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48(2), 199–211.
29.
CowellR. A.CicchettiD.RogoschF. A.TothS. L. (2015). Childhood maltreatment and its effect on neurocognitive functioning: Timing and chronicity matter. Development and Psychopathology, 27(2), 521–533.
30.
*DahmenB.PuetzV. B.ScharkeW.von PolierG. G.Herpertz-DahlmannB.KonradK. (2018). Effects of early-life adversity on hippocampal structures and associated HPA axis functions. Developmental Neuroscience, 40(1), 13–22.
31.
*DaleL. P.ShaikhS. K.FascianoL. C.WatorekV. D.HeilmanK. J.PorgesS. W. (2018). College females with maltreatment histories have atypical autonomic regulation and poor psychological wellbeing. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 10(4), 427–434.
32.
*DaneseA.MoffittT. E.ArseneaultL.BleibergB. A.DinardoP. B.GandelmanS. B.HoutsR.AmblerA.FisherH. L.PoultonRCaspiA. (2017). The origins of cognitive deficits in victimized children: Implications for neuroscientists and clinicians. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 174(4), 349–361.
33.
De BellisM. D.SprattE. G.HooperS. R. (2011). Neurodevelopmental biology associated with childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 20(5), 548–587.
34.
DeightonS.NevilleA.PuschD.DobsonK. (2018). Biomarkers of adverse childhood experiences: A scoping review. Psychiatry Research, 269, 719–732.
35.
*DemersL. A.McKenzieK. J.HuntR. H.CicchettiD.CowellR. A.RogoschF. A.TothS. L.ThomasK. M. (2018). Separable effects of childhood maltreatment and adult adaptive functioning on amygdala connectivity during emotion processing. Biological Psychiatry. Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 3(2), 116–124.
36.
*DennisonM. J.SheridanM. A.BussoD. S.JennessJ. L.PeverillM.RosenM. L.McLaughlinK. A. (2016). Neurobehavioral markers of resilience to depression amongst adolescents exposed to child abuse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 125(8), 1201–1212.
37.
*DinklerL.LundströmS.GajwaniR.LichtensteinP.GillbergC.MinnisH. (2017). Maltreatment-associated neurodevelopmental disorders: A co-twin control analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(6), 691–701.
38.
*DruryS. S.MabileE.BrettZ. H.EstevesK.JonesE.ShirtcliffE. A.TheallK. P. (2014). The association of telomere length with family violence and disruption. Pediatrics, 134(1), e128–e137.
39.
DunnE. C.NishimiK.NeumannA.RenaudA.CecilC. A.SusserE. S.TiemeierH. (2020). Time-dependent effects of exposure to physical and sexual violence on psychopathology symptoms in late childhood: In search of sensitive periods in development. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 59(2), 283–295.
40.
*EavesL. J.PromE. C.SilbergJ. L. (2010). The mediating effect of parental neglect on adolescent and young adult anti-sociality: A longitudinal study of twins and their parents. Behavior Genetics, 40(4), 425–437.
41.
ElbauI. G.CruceanuC.BinderE. B. (2019). Genetics of resilience: Gene-by environment interaction studies as a tool to dissect mechanisms of resilience. Biological Psychiatry, 86(6), 433–442.
42.
*England-MasonG.CaseyR.FerroM.MacMillanH. L.TonmyrL.GonzalezA. (2018). Child maltreatment and adult multimorbidity: Results from the Canadian community health survey. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 109(4), 561–572.
43.
*FanningJ. R.LeeR.GozalD.Coussons-ReadM.CoccaroE. F. (2015). Childhood trauma and parental style: Relationship with markers of inflammation, oxidative stress, and aggression in healthy and personality disordered subjects. Biological Psychology, 112, 56–65.
44.
FazelS.SmithE. N.ZhengC.GeddesJ. R.ChangZ. (2018). Risk factors for interpersonal violence: An umbrella review of meta-analyses. British Journal of Psychiatry, 213(4), 609–614.
45.
FinkelhorD.ShattuckA.TurnerH.HambyS. (2013). Improving the adverse childhood experiences study scale. JAMA Pediatrics, 167(1), 70–75.
46.
*FisherH. L.CaspiA.MoffittT. E.WertzJ.GrayR.NewburyJ.AmblerA.ZavosH.DaneseA.MillJ.OdgersC. L.ParianteC.WongC. C.ArseneaultL. (2015). Measuring adolescents’ exposure to victimization: The environmental risk (E-Risk) longitudinal twin study. Development and Psychopathology, 27(4pt2), 1399–1416.
47.
*FonzoG. A.FlaganT. M.SullivanS.AllardC. B.GrimesE. M.SimmonsA. N.PaulusM. P.SteinM. B. (2013). Neural functional and structural correlates of childhood maltreatment in women with intimate-partner violence-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 211(2), 93–103.
48.
*FonzoG. A.SimmonsA. N.ThorpS. R.NormanS. B.PaulusM. P.SteinM. B. (2010). Exaggerated and disconnected insular-amygdalar blood oxygenation level-dependent response to threat-related emotional faces in women with intimate-partner violence posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 68(5), 433–441.
49.
*FrodlT.SkokauskasN.FreyE.MorrisD.GillM.CarballedoA. (2014). BDNF Val66Met genotype interacts with childhood adversity and influences the formation of hippocampal subfields. Human Brain Mapping, 35(12), 5776–5783.
50.
*Fuller-RowellT. E.HomandbergL. K.CurtisD. S.TsenkovaV. K.WilliamsD. R.RyffC. D. (2019). Disparities in insulin resistance between Black and White adults in the United States: The role of lifespan stress exposure. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 107, 1–8.
51.
*GerritsenL.MilaneschiY.VinkersC. H.van HemertA. M.van VelzenL.SchmaalL.PenninxB. W. J. H. (2017). HPA axis genes, and their interaction with childhood maltreatment, are related to cortisol levels and stress-related phenotypes. Neuropsychopharmacology, 42(12), 2446–2455.
52.
*GoldbergX.AlemanyS.Fatjó-VilasM.González-OrtegaI.González-PintoA.CuestaM. J.FañanásL. (2013). Twin-based study of the complex interplay between childhood maltreatment, socioeconomic status and adult memory. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 263(5), 435–440.
53.
GottesmanI. I.ShieldsJ. (1972). A polygenic theory of schizophrenia. International Journal of Mental Health, 1(1–2), 107–115.
54.
HartH.RubiaK. (2012). Neuroimaging of child abuse: A critical review. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 52.
55.
HeimC. M.EntringerS.BussC. (2019). Translating basic research knowledge on the biological embedding of early-life stress into novel approaches for the developmental programming of lifelong health. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 105, 123–137.
56.
HeimC. M.ShugartM.CraigheadW. E.NemeroffC. B. (2010). Neurobiological and psychiatric consequences of child abuse and neglect. Developmental Psychobiology, 52(7), 671–690.
57.
HerzogJ. I.SchmahlC. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences and the consequences on neurobiological, psychosocial, and somatic conditions across the lifespan. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 420.
58.
*HerzogJ. I.ThomeJ.DemirakcaT.KoppeG.EndeG.LisS.RauschS.PriebeK.Müller-EngelmannM.SteilR.BohusM.SchmahlC. (2020). Influence of severity of type and timing of retrospectively reported childhood maltreatment on female amygdala and hippocampal volume. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 1903.
59.
*HolzN. E.BoeckerR.HohmE.ZohselK.BuchmannA. F.BlomeyerD.Jennen-SteinmetzC.BaumeisterS.HohmannS.WolfI.PlichtaM. M.EsserG.SchmidtM.Meyer-LindenbergA.BanaschewskiT.BrandeisD.LauchtM. (2015). The long-term impact of early life poverty on orbitofrontal cortex volume in adulthood: Results from a prospective study over 25 years. Neuropsychopharmacology, 40(4), 996–1004.
60.
IoannidisK.AskelundA. D.KievitR. A.van HarmelenA.-L. (2020). The complex neurobiology of resilient functioning after childhood maltreatment. BMC Medicine, 18(1), 32.
61.
*JohnsonW. F.HuelsnitzC. O.CarlsonE. A.RoismanG. I.EnglundM. M.MillerG. E.SimpsonJ. A. (2017). Childhood abuse and neglect and physical health at midlife: Prospective, longitudinal evidence. Development & Psychopathology, 29(5), 1935–1946.
62.
*KaessM.WhittleS.O’Brien-SimpsonL.AllenN. B.SimmonsJ. G. (2018). Childhood maltreatment, pituitary volume and adolescent hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis–evidence for a maltreatment-related attenuation. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 98, 39–45.
63.
*KimM. J.ElliottM. L.d’ArbeloffT. C.KnodtA. R.RadtkeS. R.BrigidiB. D.HaririA. R. (2019). Microstructural integrity of white matter moderates an association between childhood adversity and adult trait anger. Aggressive Behavior, 45(3), 310–318.
64.
*KimS.WattT.CeballosN.SharmaS. (2019). Adverse childhood experiences and neuroinflammatory biomarkers—The role of sex. Stress and Health, 35(4), 432–440.
65.
KoenenK. C.NugentN. R.AmstadterA. B. (2008). Gene-environment interaction in posttraumatic stress disorder. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 258(2), 82–96.
66.
LeceiA.van WinkelR. (2020). Hippocampal pattern separation of emotional information determining risk or resilience in individuals exposed to childhood trauma: Linking exposure to neurodevelopmental alterations and threat anticipation. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 108, 160–170.
67.
*LeeC.CoeC. L.RyffC. D. (2017). Social disadvantage, severe child abuse, and biological profiles in adulthood. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 58(3), 371–386.
68.
LewisC. M.VassosE. (2020). Polygenic risk scores: From research tools to clinical instruments. Genome Medicine, 12(1), 1–11.
69.
MaglioneD.CaputiM.MorettiB.ScainiS. (2018). Psychopathological consequences of maltreatment among children and adolescents: A systematic review of the GxE literature. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 82, 53–66.
70.
McCroryE.De BritoS. A.VidingE. (2010). Research review: The neurobiology and genetics of maltreatment and adversity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(10), 1079–1095.
71.
McCroryE.De BritoS. A.VidingE. (2011). The impact of childhood maltreatment: A review of neurobiological and genetic factors. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2(48), 1–14.
72.
McCulloughE.MathuraA. (2019). A comparison between a neuro-physiological psychotherapy (NPP) treatment group and a control group for children adopted from care: Support for a neurodevelopmentally informed approach to therapeutic intervention with maltreated children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 97, 104128.
73.
*MielkeE. L.NeukelC.BertschK.ReckC.MöhlerE.HerpertzS. C. (2016). Maternal sensitivity and the empathic brain: Influences of early life maltreatment. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 77, 59–66.
74.
MoherD.LiberatiA.TetzlaffJ.AltmanD. G. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Annals of Internal Medicine, 151(4), 264–269.
75.
*MoogN. K.EntringerS.RasmussenJ. M.StynerM.GilmoreJ. H.KathmannN.HeimC. M.WadhwaP. DBussC. (2018). Intergenerational effect of maternal exposure to childhood maltreatment on newborn brain anatomy. Biological Psychiatry, 83(2), 120–127.
76.
Moreno-LópezL.IoannidisK.AskelundA. D.SmithA. J.SchuelerK.van HarmelenA.-L. (2019). The resilient emotional brain: A scoping review of the medial prefrontal cortex and limbic structure and function in resilient adults with a history of childhood maltreatment. Biological Psychiatry. Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 5(4), 392–402.
77.
*NeukelC.HerpertzS. C.Hinid-AttarC.ZietlowA.-L.FuchsA.MoehlerE.BermpohlF.BertschK. (2019). Neural processing of the own child’s facial emotions in mothers with a history of early life maltreatment. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 269(2), 171–181.
78.
NusslockR.MillerG. E. (2016). Early-life adversity and physical and emotional health across the lifespan: A neuroimmune network hypothesis. Biological Psychiatry, 80(1), 23–32.
79.
*PaquolaC.BennettM. R.HattonS. N.HermensD. F.GrooteI.LagopoulosJ. (2017). Hippocampal development in youth with a history of childhood maltreatment. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 91, 149–155.
80.
*PeckinsM. K.DockrayS.EckenrodeJ. L.HeatonJ.SusmanE. J. (2012). The longitudinal impact of exposure to violence on cortisol reactivity in adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 51(4), 366–372.
81.
*PeverillM.SheridanM. A.BussoD. S.McLaughlinK. A. (2019). Atypical prefrontal–amygdala circuitry following childhood exposure to abuse: Links with adolescent psychopathology. Child Maltreatment, 24(4), 411–423.
82.
*PezzoliP.AntfolkJ.HatoumA. S.SanttilaP. (2019). Genetic vulnerability to experiencing child maltreatment. Frontiers in Genetics, 10, 852.
83.
*PittnerK.CyrC.MadiganS.AlinkL.van IjzendoornM. H.BuismanR. S. M.Compier-de BlockL. H. C. G. C.van den BergL. J. M.ElzingaB. M.LindenbergJ.TollenaarM. S.DiegoV. P.Bakermans-KranenburgM. J. (2019). The genetic and environmental etiology of child maltreatment in a parent-based extended family design. Development & Psychopathology, 31(1), 157–172.
84.
*PuetzV. B.ParkerD.KohnN.DahmenB.VermaR.KonradK. (2017). Altered brain network integrity after childhood maltreatment: A structural connectomic DTI-study. Human Brain Mapping, 38(2), 855–868.
85.
*PuetzV. B.VidingE.GerinM. I.PingaultJ.-B.SethiA.KnodtA. R.RadtkeS. R.BrigidiB. D.HaririA. R.McCroryE. (2019). Investigating patterns of neural response associated with childhood abuse v. Childhood neglect. Psychological Medicine, 1–10.
86.
*RidoutK. K.ParadeS. H.KaoH.-T.MagnanS.SeiferR.PortonB.PriceL. H.TyrkaA. R. (2019). Childhood maltreatment, behavioral adjustment, and molecular markers of cellular aging in preschool-aged children: A cohort study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 107, 261–269.
87.
*RodmanA. M.JennessJ. L.WeissmanD. G.PineD. S.McLaughlinK. A. (2019). Neurobiological markers of resilience to depression following childhood maltreatment: The role of neural circuits supporting the cognitive control of emotion. Biological Psychiatry, 86(6), 464–473.
88.
*RooksC.VeledarE.GoldbergJ.BremnerJ. D.VaccarinoV. (2012). Early trauma and inflammation: Role of familial factors in a study of twins. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74(2), 146–152.
89.
RoosL. E.HornS.BerkmanE. T.PearsK.FisherP. A. (2018). Leveraging translational neuroscience to inform early intervention and addiction prevention for children exposed to early life stress. Neurobiology of Stress, 9, 231–240.
90.
*ScheuerS.WiggertN.BrücklT. M.AwaloffY.UhrM.LucaeS.KloiberS.HolsboerF.IsingM.WilhelmF. H. (2018). Childhood abuse and depression in adulthood: The mediating role of allostatic load. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 94, 134–142.
91.
SchwartzJ. A.WrightE. M.ValgardsonB. A. (2019). Adverse childhood experiences and deleterious outcomes in adulthood: A consideration of the simultaneous role of genetic and environmental influences in two independent samples from the United States. Child Abuse & Neglect, 88, 420–431.
92.
ScoglioA. A.KrausS. W.SaczynskiJ.JoomaS.MolnarB. E. (2019). Systematic review of risk and protective factors for revictimization after child sexual abuse. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 1–13.
93.
SedlakA. J.MettenburgJ.BasenaM.PetaI.McPhersonK.GreeneA. (2010). Fourth National Incidence Study of child abuse and neglect (NIS-4). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 9.
94.
SeemanT.GruenewaldT.KarlamanglaA.SidneyS.LiuK.McewenB.SchwartzJ. (2010). Modeling multisystem biological risk in young adults: The coronary artery risk development in young adults study. American Journal of Human Biology: The Official Journal of the Human Biology Association, 22(4), 463–472.
95.
*SlopenN.LewisT. T.GruenewaldT. L.MujahidM. S.RyffC. D.AlbertM. A.WilliamsD. R. (2010). Early life adversity and inflammation in African Americans and Whites in the Midlife in the United States Survey. Psychosomatic Medicine, 72(7), 694–701.
96.
*SternA.Agnew-BlaisJ.DaneseA.FisherH. L.JaffeeS. R.MatthewsT.PolanczykG. V.ArseneaultL. (2018). Associations between abuse/neglect and ADHD from childhood to young adulthood: A prospective nationally-representative twin study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 81, 274–285.
97.
TamV.PatelN.TurcotteM.BosséY.ParéG.MeyreD. (2019). Benefits and limitations of genome-wide association studies. Nature Reviews Genetics, 20(8), 467–484.
98.
*TanksleyP. T.BarnesJ. C.BoutwellB. B.ArseneaultL.CaspiA.DaneseA.FisherH. L.MoffittT. E. (2020). Identifying psychological pathways to polyvictimization: Evidence from a longitudinal cohort study of twins from the UK. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 16(3), 431–461.
99.
TaylorS. E.RepettiR. L.SeemanT. (1997). Health psychology: What is an unhealthy environment and how does it get under the skin?Annual Review of Psychology, 48(1), 411–447.
100.
*TeicherM. H.AndersonC. M.PolcariA. (2012). Childhood maltreatment is associated with reduced volume in the hippocampal subfields CA3, dentate gyrus, and subiculum. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(9), 563–572.
101.
TomalskiP.JohnsonM. H. (2010). The effects of early adversity on the adult and developing brain. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 23(3), 233–238.
102.
TroutonA.SpinathF. M.PlominR. (2002). Twins early development study (TEDS): A multivariate, longitudinal genetic investigation of language, cognition and behavior problems in childhood. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 5(5), 444–448.
103.
TwardoszS.LutzkerJ. R. (2010). Child maltreatment and the developing brain: A review of neuroscience perspectives. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15(1), 59–68.
104.
*Van DamN. T.RandoK.PotenzaM. N.TuitK.SinhaR. (2014). Childhood maltreatment, altered limbic neurobiology, and substance use relapse severity via trauma-specific reductions in limbic gray matter volume. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(8), 917–925.
105.
*van den BergL. J. M.TollenaarM. S.PittnerK.Compier-de BlockL. H. C. G.BuismanR. S. M.van IJzendoornM. H.ElzingaB. M. (2018). Pass it on? The neural responses to rejection in the context of a family study on maltreatment. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 13(6), 616–627.
106.
*van der WerffS. J. A.PannekoekJ. N.VeerI. M.van TolM.-J.AlemanA.VeltmanD. J.ZitmanF. G.RomboutsS. A.ElzingaB. M.van der WeeN. J. A. (2013). Resilience to childhood maltreatment is associated with increased resting-state functional connectivity of the salience network with the lingual gyrus. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(11), 1021–1029.
107.
*van HarmelenA.-L.van TolM.-J.DemenescuL. R.van der WeeN. J. A.VeltmanD. J.AlemanA.van BuchemM. A.SpinhovenP.PenninxB. W. J. H.ElzingaB. M. E. (2013). Enhanced amygdala reactivity to emotional faces in adults reporting childhood emotional maltreatment. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 8(4), 362–369.
108.
*van RooijS. J.SmithR. D.StensonA. F.ElyT. D.YangX.TottenhamN.StevensJ. S.JovanovicT. (2020). Increased activation of the fear neurocircuitry in children exposed to violence. Depression and Anxiety, 37(4), 303–312.
109.
*VaskeJ.BoisvertD.WrightJ. P. (2012). Genetic and environmental contributions to the relationship between violent victimization and criminal behavior. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(16), 3213–3235.
110.
VisscherP. M.WrayN. R.ZhangQ.SklarP.McCarthyM. I.BrownM. A.YangJ. (2017). 10 years of GWAS discovery: Biology, function, and translation. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 101(1), 5–22.
111.
VerhulstB. (2017). A power calculator for the classical twin design. Behavior Genetics, 47(2), 255–261.
112.
*YorkT. P.BrumelleJ.JuusolaJ.KendlerK. S.EavesL. J.AmstadterA. B.AggenS. H.JonesK. H.Ferreira-GonzalezA.Jackson-CookC. (2013). Increased frequency of micronuclei in adults with a history of childhood sexual abuse: A discordant monozygotic twin study. PLoS One, 8(1), e55337.
113.
*ZwickerA.MacKenzieL. E.DrobininV.BagherA. M.Howes VallisE.PropperL.BagnellA.AbidiS.PavlovaB.AldaM.Denovan-WrightE. M.UherR. (2020). Neurodevelopmental and genetic determinants of exposure to adversity among youth at risk for mental illness. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 61(5), 536–544..
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
