Hate Crimes and Race-Based Trauma on Latinx Populations: A Critical Review of the Current Research

Abstract

Traditionally, the literature has sought to understand the impact of racial minority status and trauma as it relates to interpersonal violence, domestic violence, and sexual assault. What has not been as extensively reviewed and summarized is how racially or ethnically motivated hate crimes impact the mental health of minorities—particularly Latinx/Hispanic groups. This review aims to summarize the current body of literature on the intersection of race-motivated hate crime and trauma responses within Latinx community. To do so, the theoretical foundation for this inquiry will build from a race-based trauma perspective. Specifically, this review connects existing frameworks for race and trauma and integrates literature that examines Latinx or Hispanic populations that have experienced discrimination, bias, or hate crime as a result of their identity or perceived identity. The importance of situating bias or hate events within the trauma literature stems from a lack of overall formal evaluation of these events, and how these occurrences are historically overlooked as a traumatic stressor. The findings of this review suggest that (1) experiencing racially motivated victimization can cause adverse mental and physical health outcomes in Latinxs and (2) currently, there is only one study that has examined the impact of hate crime on Latinxs in the United States. This leaves the field with unanswered questions about the impact of hate crime victimization among Latinxs, which is an ever-growing area in need of attention.

Keywords

community violence cultural contexts hate crimes mental health and violence ethnicity PTSD

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abu-Ras

W. M.

Suarez

Z. E.

(2009). Muslim men and women’s perception of discrimination, hate crimes, and PTSD symptoms post 9/11. Traumatology, 15(3), 48–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765609342281

Alvarez

A. N.

Liang

C. T.

Neville

H. A.

(2016). The cost of racism for people of color: Contextualizing experiences of discrimination. American Psychological Association.

Alvarez-Rivera

L. L.

Nobles

M. R.

Lersch

K. M.

(2014). Latino immigrant acculturation and crime. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 39(2), 315–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-013-9203-9

American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.) American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 (5th ed.) American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.

Araújo

B. Y.

Borrell

L. N.

(2006). Understanding the link between discrimination, mental health outcomes, and life chances among Latinos. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 28(2), 245–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986305285825

Ashmore

R. D.

Deaux

McLaughlin-Volpe

(2004). An organizing framework for collective identity: Articulation and significance of multidimensionality. Psychological Bulletin, 130(1), 80.

Basile

K. C.

Arias

Desai

Thompson

M. P.

(2004). The differential association of intimate partner physical, sexual, psychological, and stalking violence and posttraumatic stress symptoms in a nationally representative sample of women. Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 17(5), 413–421.

Becerra

Androff

Cimino

Wagaman

M. A.

Blanchard

K. N.

(2013). The impact of perceived discrimination and immigration policies upon perceptions of quality of life among Latinos in the United States. Race and Social Problems, 5(1), 65–78.

10.

Berry

J. W.

Sabatier

(2010). Acculturation, discrimination, and adaptation among second generation immigrant youth in Montreal and Paris. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 34(3), 191–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.11.007

11.

Blee

K. M.

(2005). Racial violence in the United States. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 28(4), 599–619.

12.

Boney-McCoy

Finkelhor

(1995). Prior victimization: A risk factor for child sexual abuse and for PTSD-related symptomatology among sexually abused youth. Child Abuse & Neglect, 19(12), 1401–1421.

13.

Bridges

A. J.

Karlsson

M. E.

Jackson

J. C.

Andrews

A. R.

III Villalobos

B. T.

(2018). Barriers to and methods of help seeking for domestic violence victimization: A comparison of Hispanic and non-Hispanic White women residing in the United States. Violence Against Women, 24(15), 1810–1829.

14.

Briere

Elliott

D. M.

(2003). Prevalence and psychological sequelae of self-reported childhood physical and sexual abuse in a general population sample of men and women. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27(10), 1205–1222.

15.

Briere

Jordan

C. E.

(2004). Violence against women: Outcome complexity and implications for assessment and treatment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19(11), 1252–1276.

16.

Broman

C. L.

Mavaddat

Hsu

S.-Y.

(2000). The experience and consequences of perceived racial discrimination: A study of African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 26(2), 165–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798400026002003

17.

Bryant-Davis

(2007). Healing requires recognition. The Counseling Psychologist, 35(1), 135–143. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006295152

18.

Bryant-Davis

Ocampo

(2005). Racist incident–based trauma. The Counseling Psychologist, 33(4), 479–500. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000005276465

19.

Cabassa

L. J.

Zayas

L. H.

Hansen

M. C.

(2006). Latino adults’ access to mental health care: A review of epidemiological studies. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 33(3), 316–330.

20.

Capielo Rosario

Adames

H. Y.

Chavez-Dueñas

N. Y.

Renteria

(2019). Acculturation profiles of central Florida Puerto Ricans: Examining the influence of skin color, perceived ethnic-racial discrimination, and neighborhood ethnic-racial composition. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 50(4), 556–576.

21.

Carlson

E. B.

(1997). Trauma assessments: A clinician’s guide. Guilford Press.

22.

Carter

R. T.

(2007). Racism and psychological and emotional injury. The Counseling Psychologist, 35(1), 13–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006292033

23.

Carter

R. T.

Forsyth

J. M.

Mazzula

S. L.

Williams

(2005). Racial discrimination and race-based traumatic stress: An exploratory investigation. In Handbook of racial-cultural psychology and counseling: Training and practice (Vol. 2, pp. 447–476). Wiley. https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Handbook+of+Racial+Cultural+Psychology+and+Counseling%2C+Volume+2%3A+Training+and+Practice-p-9780471386292

24.

Cha

B. S.

Enriquez

L. E.

(2019). Beyond access: Psychosocial barriers to undocumented students’ use of mental health services. Social Science & Medicine, 233, 193–200.

25.

Chavez-Duenas

N. Y.

Adames

H. Y.

Perez-Chavez

J. G.

Salas

S. P.

(2019). Healing ethno-racial trauma in Latinx immigrant communities: Cultivating hope, resistance, and action. American Psychologist, 74(1), 49–62. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000289

26.

Cheng

H.-L.

Mallinckrodt

(2015). Racial/ethnic discrimination, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and alcohol problems in a longitudinal study of Hispanic/Latino college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(1), 38.

27.

Cougle

J. R.

Resnick

Kilpatrick

D. G.

(2009). Does prior exposure to interpersonal violence increase risk of PTSD following subsequent exposure? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47(12), 1012–1017.

28.

Craig

K. M.

(2002). Examining hate-motivated aggression: A review of the social psychological literature on hate crimes as a distinct form of aggression. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 7(1), 85–101.

29.

Cramer

R. J.

Wright

Long

M. M.

Kapusta

N. D.

Nobles

M. R.

Gemberling

T. M.

Wechsler

H. J.

(2018). On hate crime victimization: Rates, types, and links with suicide risk among sexual orientation minority special interest group members. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 19(4), 476–489.

30.

Cuevas

C. A.

Bell

K. A.

Sabina

(2014). Victimization, psychological distress, and help-seeking: Disentangling the relationship for Latina victims. Psychology of Violence, 4(2), 196–209. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035819

31.

Cuevas

C. A.

Farrell

McDevitt

Zhang

Temple

Robles

Lockwood

(2019). Understanding and measuring bias victimization against Latinos. U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.

32.

Cuevas

C. A.

Finkelhor

Clifford

Ormrod

R. K.

Turner

H. A.

(2010). Psychological distress as a risk factor for re-victimization in children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34(4), 235–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.07.004

33.

Cuevas

C. A.

Sabina

Bell

K. A.

(2012). The effect of acculturation and immigration on the victimization and psychological distress link in a national sample of Latino women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(8), 1428–1456.

34.

Cuevas

C. A.

Sabina

Milloshi

(2012). Interpersonal victimization among a national sample of Latino women. Violence Against Women, 18(4), 377–403. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801212452413

35.

Cuevas

C. A.

Sabina

Picard

E. H.

(2010). Interpersonal victimization patterns and psychopathology among Latino women: Results from the SALAS study. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 2(4), 296–306. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020099

36.

Davis

R. C.

Henderson

N. J.

(2003). Willingness to report crimes: The role of ethnic group membership and community efficacy. Crime & Delinquency, 49(4), 564–580. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128703254418

37.

Dunbar

(2006). Race, gender, and sexual orientation in hate crime victimization: Identity politics or identity risk? Violence and Victims, 21(3), 323.

38.

Duncan

D. T.

Hatzenbuehler

M. L.

(2014). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender hate crimes and suicidality among a population-based sample of sexual-minority adolescents in Boston. American Journal of Public Health, 104(2), 272–278.

39.

Elligan

Utsey

(1999). Utility of an African-centered support group for African American men confronting societal racism and oppression. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 5(2), 156.

40.

Espino

Franz

M. M.

(2002). Latino phenotypic discrimination revisited: The impact of skin color on occupational status. Social Science Quarterly, 83(2), 612–623.

41.

Essed

(1991). Understanding everyday racism: An interdisciplinary theory. Sage Publications.

42.

Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2018). Hate crime statistics, 2018. Department of Justice.

43.

Flores

Lopez

M. H.

Krogstad

J. M.

(2019). U.S. Hispanic population reached new high in 2018, but growth has slowed. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/07/08/u-s-hispanic-population-reached-new-high-in-2018-but-growth-has-slowed/

44.

Flores

Tschann

J. M.

Dimas

J. M.

Pasch

L. A.

de Groat

C. L.

(2010). Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and health risk behaviors among Mexican American adolescents. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57(3), 264–273. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020026

45.

Fontes

L. A.

(1995). Sexual abuse in nine North American cultures: Treatment and prevention (Vol. 11). Sage.

46.

Frost

D. M.

Lehavot

Meyer

I. H.

(2015). Minority stress and physical health among sexual minority individuals. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 38(1), 1–8.

47.

Gibson

C. L.

Miller

H. V.

(2010). Crime and victimization among Hispanic adolescents: A multilevel longitudinal study of acculturation and segmented assimilation (A final report for the WEB Du Bois Fellowship Submitted to the National Institute of Justice). Department of Justice.

48.

Gonzales

K. L.

Noonan

Goins

R. T.

Henderson

W. G.

Beals

Manson

S. M.

Acton

K. J.

Roubideaux

(2016). Assessing the everyday discrimination scale among American Indians and Alaska natives. Psychological Assessment, 28(1), 51.

49.

Gonzalez

F. R.

Benuto

L. T.

Casas

J. B.

(2018). Prevalence of interpersonal violence among Latinas: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838018806507

50.

Graham

Boyd

(2017). Understanding antisemitic hate crime: Do the experiences, perceptions and behaviors of Jews vary by gender, age and religiosity? https://www.osce.org/odihr/320021

51.

Harlow

C. W.

(2005). Hate crime reported by victims and police. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice.

52.

Harrell

S. P.

(2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: Implications for the well-being of people of color. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(1), 42–57.

53.

Heilemann

M. V.

Kury

F. S.

Lee

K. A.

(2005). Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms among low income women of Mexican descent in the United States. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 193(10), 665–672.

54.

Hoge

C. W.

Riviere

L. A.

Wilk

J. E.

Herrell

R. K.

Weathers

F. W.

(2014). The prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in US combat soldiers: A head-to-head comparison of DSM-5 versus DSM-IV-TR symptom criteria with the PTSD checklist. The Lancet Psychiatry, 1(4), 269–277.

55.

Holmes

S. C.

Facemire

V. C.

DaFonseca

A. M.

(2016). Expanding criterion A for posttraumatic stress disorder: Considering the deleterious impact of oppression. Traumatology, 22(4), 314.

56.

Hoskins

Duncan

L. G.

Moskowitz

J. T.

Ordóñez

A. E.

(2018). Positive adaptations for trauma and healing (PATH), a pilot study of group therapy with Latino youth. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 10(2), 163.

57.

Ingram

E. M.

(2007). A comparison of help seeking between Latino and Non-Latino victims of intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 13(2), 159–171.

58.

Ismay

(2019). Victim of Milwaukee acid attack says he was told to “go back to your country.” The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/04/us/milwaukee-acid-attack-victim.html

59.

James

Salcedo

. (2017). 2015 US Transgender Survey: Report on the experiences of Latino/a respondents. http://www.transequality.org/sites/default/files/docs/usts/USTSLatinReport-Nov17.pdf

60.

Jones

Carter

. (1996). Racism and white racial identity: Merging realities. In Bowser

B. P.

Hunt

R. G.

(Eds.), Impacts of racism on White Americans (pp. 1–23). Sage.

61.

Lannert

(2015). Traumatogenic processes and pathways to mental health outcomes for sexual minorities exposed to bias crime information. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 16(3), 291–298. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838014526067

62.

Lauritsen

J. L.

White

N. A.

(2001). Putting violence in its place: The influence of race, ethnicity, gender, and place on the risk for violence. Criminology & Public Policy, 1(1), 37–60.

63.

Levin

McDevitt

(1993). Hate crimes: The rising tide of bigotry and bloodshed. Plenum.

64.

Lewis-Fernández

Turner

J. B.

Marshall

Turse

Neria

Dohrenwend

B. P.

(2008). Elevated rates of current PTSD among Hispanic veterans in the NVVRS: True prevalence or methodological artifact? Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 21(2), 123–132.

65.

Macmillan

(2001). Violence and the life course: The consequences of victimization for personal and social development. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 1–22.

66.

Marshall

G. N.

Schell

T. L.

Miles

J. N.

(2009). Ethnic differences in posttraumatic distress: Hispanics’ symptoms differ in kind and degree. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(6), 1169.

67.

Martinez

Jr . (2014). Latino homicide: Immigration, violence, and community. Routledge.

68.

Martinez

Sandfort

Dodge

Carballo-Dieguez

Pinto

Rhodes

S. D.

Moya

Chavez-Baray

(2015). Evaluating the impact of immigration policies on health status among undocumented immigrants: A systematic review. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 17(3), 947–970.

69.

Masucci

Langton

(2017). Hate crime victimization, 2004–2015. U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Bureau of Justice Statistics.

70.

McCart

M. R.

Smith

D. W.

Sawyer

G. K.

(2010). Help seeking among victims of crime: A review of the empirical literature. Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 23(2), 198–206.

71.

McDevitt

Levin

Bennett

(2002). Hate crime offenders: An expanded typology. Journal of Social Issues, 58(2), 303–317.

72.

McPhail

B. A.

(2002). Gender-bias hate crimes. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 3(2), 125–143.

73.

Mendoza

Masuda

Swartout

K. M.

(2015). Mental health stigma and self-concealment as predictors of help-seeking attitudes among Latina/o college students in the United States. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 37(3), 207–222.

74.

Miller

H. V.

Lopez

K. M.

(2015). Prevalence of victimization and exposure to violence in a sample of Hispanic Americans: A research note. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(9), 1593–1610.

75.

Monson

C. M.

Friedman

M. J.

La Bash

H. A.

(2007). A psychological history of PTSD. In Friedman

M. J.

Keane

T. M.

Resick

P. A.

(Eds.), Handbook of PTSD: Science and practice (pp. 37–52). Guilford Press.

76.

Nadal

K. L.

Mazzula

S. L.

Rivera

D. P.

Fujii-Doe

(2014). Microaggressions and Latina/o Americans: An analysis of nativity, gender, and ethnicity. Journal of Latina/o Psychology, 2(2), 67.

77.

Norris

F. H.

(1992). Epidemiology of trauma: Frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60(3), 409–418.

78.

Norris

F. H.

Kaniasty

(1994). Psychological distress following criminal victimization in the general population: Cross-sectional, longitudinal, and prospective analyses. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62(1), 111.

79.

Ortega

A. N.

Rosenheck

(2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder among Hispanic Vietnam veterans. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(4), 615–619.

80.

Osanloo

A. F.

Boske

Newcomb

W. S.

(2016). Deconstructing macroaggressions, microaggressions, and structural racism in education: Developing a conceptual model for the intersection of social justice practice and intercultural education. International Journal of Organizational Theory and Development, 4(1), 1–18.

81.

Pai

Suris

A. M.

North

C. S.

(2017). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the DSM-5: Controversy, change, and conceptual considerations. Behavioral Sciences, 7(1), 7.

82.

Paradies

Ben

Denson

Elias

Priest

Pieterse

Gupta

Kelaher

Gee

(2015). Racism as a determinant of health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS One, 10(9), e0138511. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138511

83.

Passel

J. S.

Cohn

D. V.

(2015). Unauthorized immigrant population stable for half a decade. Pew Hispanic Center.

84.

Perreira

K. M.

Ornelas

(2013). Painful passages: Traumatic experiences and post-traumatic stress among immigrant Latino adolescents and their primary caregivers. International Migration Review, 47(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/imre.12050

85.

Pew Research Center. (2018). National survey of Latinos [Data file and code book]. Retrieved from https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/profile/

86.

Pfeffer

Cuevas

C. A.

Kushner

Lockwood

(2018). Enhancing the quality of research on understudied populations. In DeKeseredy

W. S.

Rennison

C. M.

Hall-Sanchez

A. K.

(Eds.), The Routledge international handbook of violence studies (pp. 78–89). Routledge.

87.

Piatkowska

S. J.

Messner

S. F.

Hövermann

(2019). Black out-group marriages and hate crime rates: A cross-sectional analysis of US metropolitan areas. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022427819864142

88.

Pieterse

A. L.

Todd

N. R.

Neville

H. A.

Carter

R. T.

(2012). Perceived racism and mental health among Black American adults: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(1), 1.

89.

Polanco-Roman

Danies

Anglin

D. M.

(2016). Racial discrimination as race-based trauma, coping strategies, and dissociative symptoms among emerging adults. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 8(5), 609.

90.

Prilleltensky

(1995). The politics of abnormal psychology: Past, present and future. Political Psychology, 11(4), 767–786. https://doi.org/10.2307/3791483

91.

Rennison

C. M.

(2007). Reporting to the police by Hispanic victims of violence. Violence and Victims, 22(6), 754.

92.

Rivera

D. P.

Forquer

E. E.

Rangel

(2010). Microaggressions and the life experience of Latina/o Americans. In Sue

D. W.

(Ed.), Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics, and impact (pp. 59–83). Wiley.

93.

Rizo

C. F.

Macy

R. J.

(2011). Help seeking and barriers of Hispanic partner violence survivors: A systematic review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16(3), 250–264.

94.

Roberts

A. L.

Gilman

S. E.

Breslau

Koenen

K. C.

(2011). Race/ethnic differences in exposure to traumatic events, development of post-traumatic stress disorder, and treatment-seeking for post-traumatic stress disorder in the United States. Psychol Med, 41(1), 71–83. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291710000401

95.

Ruef

A. M.

Litz

B. T.

Schlenger

W. E.

(2000). Hispanic ethnicity and risk for combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 6(3), 235.

96.

Sabina

Cuevas

C. A.

Cotignola-Pickens

H. M.

(2016). Longitudinal dating violence victimization among Latino teens: Rates, risk factors, and cultural influences. Journal of Adolescence, 47, 5–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.11.003

97.

Sabina

Cuevas

C. A.

Lannen

(2014). The likelihood of Latino women to seek help in response to interpersonal victimization: An examination of individual, interpersonal and sociocultural influences. Psychosocial Intervention, 23(2), 95–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psi.2014.07.005

98.

Sabina

Cuevas

C. A.

Schally

J. L.

(2012). Help-seeking in a national sample of victimized Latino women: The influence of victimization types. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27(1), 40–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260511416460

99.

Sabina

Cuevas

C. A.

Schally

J. L.

(2013). The effect of immigration and acculturation on victimization among a national sample of Latino women. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 19(1), 13–26. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030500

100.

Salas

L. M.

Ayón

Gurrola

(2013). Estamos Traumados: The effect of anti-immigrant sentiment and policies on the mental health of Mexican immigrant families. Journal of Community Psychology, 41(8), 1005–1020. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21589

101.

Samari

Alcalá

H. E.

Sharif

M. Z.

(2018). Islamophobia, health, and public health: A systematic literature review. American Journal of Public Health, 108(6), e1–e9.

102.

Sanders-Phillips

Moisan

P. A.

Wadlington

Morgan

English

(1995). Ethnic differences in psychological functioning among Black and Latino sexually abused girls. Child Abuse & Neglect, 19(6), 691–706.

103.

Schwartz

S. J.

Unger

J. B.

Zamboanga

B. L.

Szapocznik

(2010). Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research. American Psychologist, 65(4), 237.

104.

Selk

(2018). “Rapist!” she yelled at a Hispanic man. “She’s quoting the president,” he thought. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2018/06/26/rapist-she-yelled-at-a-hispanic-man-shes-quoting-the-president-he-thought/

105.

Sibrava

N. J.

Bjornsson

A. S.

Pérez Benítez

A. C. I.

Moitra

Weisberg

R. B.

Keller

M. B.

(2019). Posttraumatic stress disorder in African American and Latinx adults: Clinical course and the role of racial and ethnic discrimination. American Psychologist, 74(1), 101.

106.

Smedley

(2018). Race in North America: Origin and evolution of a worldview. Routledge.

107.

Stowell

Martinez

(2009). Incorporating ethnic-specific measures of immigration in the study of lethal violence. Homicide Studies, 13, 315–324.

108.

Tessler

R. A.

Langton

Rivara

F. P.

Vavilala

M. S.

Rowhani-Rahbar

(2018). Differences by victim race and ethnicity in race-and ethnicity-motivated violent bias crimes: A national study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0886260518818428

109.

Torres

Taknint

J. T.

(2015). Ethnic microaggressions, traumatic stress symptoms, and Latino depression: A moderated mediational model. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(3), 393–401. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000077

110.

U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division. (2009). Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr., Hate Crimes Prevention Act of 2009, 18 U.S.C. § 249. https://www.justice.gov/crt/matthew-shepard-and-james-byrd-jr-hate-crimes-prevention-act-2009-0

111.

U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2017a). Crime in the United States, 2017. https://ucr.fbi.gov/hate-crime

112.

U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2017b). Uniform crime reporting handbook: UCR: Revised 2004 . https://ucr.fbi.gov/additional-ucr-publications/ucr_handbook.pdf

113.

West

C. M.

Kantor

G. K.

Jasinski

J. L.

(2005). Sociodemographic predictors and cultural barriers to help-seeking behavior by Latina and Anglo American battered women. In Greene

H. T.

Gabbidon

S. L.

(Eds.), Race, crime and justice: A reader (pp. 161–173). Sage.

114.

Williams

Williams-Morris

(2000). Racism and mental health: The African American experience. Ethnicity & Health, 5(3-4), 243–268.

115.

Williams

M. T.

Metzger

I. W.

Leins

DeLapp

(2018). Assessing racial trauma within a DSM–5 framework: The UConn racial/ethnic stress & trauma survey. Practice Innovations, 3(4), 242.

116.

Wilson

M. M.

(2014). Hate crime victimization, 2004–2012, statistical tables. U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Bureau of Justice Statistics.

117.

Yan

F. A.

Howard

D. E.

Beck

K. H.

Shattuck

Hallmark-Kerr

(2010). Psychosocial correlates of physical dating violence victimization among Latino early adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(5), 808–831.

118.

Zaykowski

(2010). Racial disparities in hate crime reporting. Violence and Victims, 25(3), 378.

119.

Zeiders

K. H.

Nair

R. L.

Hoyt

L. T.

Pace

T. W.

Cruze

(2019). Latino early adolescents’ psychological and physiological responses during the 2016 US presidential election. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 26(2), 169–175.