The attachment theory is a useful framework for interpreting the phenomenon of intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration. Although several studies have examined the relationship between attachment and IPV perpetration, a meta-analysis of these results has yet to be conducted.
Method:
After a search on five databases (PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed) and a screening of 3,852 records recruited, 52 studies comprising 13,653 individuals met the inclusion criteria for this meta-analysis.
Results:
Results showed a significant effect size for both the anxiety and avoidance dimensions of attachment. However, while the effect sizes for anxiety were consistent (r = .19–.35) for all types of violence considered, the effect size for avoidance was not significant for generic violence (r = .07), low for physical (r = .12) and psychological violence (r = .14), and medium for sexual violence (r = .20). Only a few of the examined moderators were significant.
Conclusions:
The findings highlight some differences in the roles of the two attachment dimensions in IPV. The results underscore the need for additional research to explore the role of other potential moderating and mediating variables in the relationship between attachment and IPV perpetration in order to better support the development of prevention and treatment interventions.
AllisonC. J.BartholomewK.MayselessO.DuttonD. G. (2008). Love as a battlefield: Attachment and relationship dynamics in couples identified for male partner violence. Journal of Family Issues, 29(1), 125–150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192513X07306980
2.
ArcherJ. (2000). Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 651–680. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.126.5.651
3.
ArroyoK.LundahlB.ButtersR.VanderlooM.WoodD. S. (2017). Short-term interventions for survivors of intimate partner violence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 18(2), 155–171. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015602736
4.
BabcockJ.YeringtonT.JacobsonN.GottmanJ. (2000). Attachment, emotional regulation, and the function of marital violence: Differences between secure, preoccupied, and dismissing violent and nonviolent husbands. Journal of Family Violence, 15(4), 391–409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1007558330501
5.
BartholomewK.HorowitzL. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(2), 226–244. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.226
6.
BeggC. B.MazumdarM. (1994). Operating characteristics of a rank correlation test for publication bias. Biometrics, 1088–1101. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2533446
7.
BeydounH. A.BeydounM. A.ZondermanA. B.KaufmanJ. S.LoB. (2012). Intimate partner violence against adult women and its association with major depressive disorder, depressive symptoms and postpartum depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Science and Medicine, 75(6), 959–975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.04.025
8.
BirnbaumG. E. (2007). Attachment orientations, sexual functioning, and relationship satisfaction in a community sample of women. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 24(1), 21–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407507072576
9.
BorensteinM.HedgesL.HigginsJ.RothsteinH. (2005). Comprehensive meta-analysis, Version 2. Biostat.
10.
BorensteinM.HedgesL. V.HigginsJ. P. T.RothsteinH. R. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. Wiley.
11.
BowlbyJ. (1969). Attachment and loss, attachment, 1. Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis.
12.
BowlbyJ. (1988). A secure base: Clinical applications of attachment theory. Routledge.
13.
BreidingM.BasileK. C.SmithS. G.BlackM. C.MahendraR. R. (2015). Intimate partner violence surveillance: Uniform definitions and recommended data elements. Version 2.0. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Division of Violence Prevention.
14.
BrennanK. A.ClarkC.ShaverP. R. (1998). Self-report measures of adult romantic attachment. In SimpsonJ.RholesW. (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 46–76). Guilford Press.
15.
BrennanK. A.ShaverP. R. (1995). Dimensions of adult attachment, affect regulation, and romantic relationship functioning. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(3), 267–283.
16.
BrodieZ. P.GoodallK.DarlingS.McVittieC. (2019). Attachment insecurity and dispositional aggression: The mediating role of maladaptive anger regulation. Journal of Social & Personal Relationships, 36(6), 1831–1852.
17.
CampbellL.SimpsonJ. A.BoldryJ.KashyD. A. (2005). Perceptions of conflict and support in romantic relationships: The role of attachment anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(3), 510–531.
18.
CapaldiD. M.KnobleN. B.ShorttJ. W.KimH. K. (2012). A systematic review of risk factors for intimate partner violence. Partner Abuse, 3(2), 231–280. https://doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.3.2.231
19.
CarlsonB. E.WordenA. P.van RynM.BachmanR. (2001). Violence against women: Synthesis of research for service providers. US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice.
20.
CarneyM. M.ButtellF. P. (2005). Exploring the relevance of attachment theory as a dependent variable in the treatment of women mandated into treatment for domestic violence offenses. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 41(4), 33–61.
21.
CarraudL.JafféP. D.Sillitti-DokicF. (2008). Attachement amoureux, agressivité émotionnelle et instrumentale chez des auteurs de violence conjugale [Romantic attachment, emotional and instrumental aggression among perpetrators of domestic violence]. Pratiques Psychologiques, 14(4), 481–490. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.prps.2007.10.001
22.
CastellanoR.VelottiP.CrowellJ.ZavattiniG. C. (2014). The role of parents’ attachment configurations at childbirth on marital satisfaction and conflict strategies. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23, 1011–1026, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9757-7
23.
CastellanoR.VelottiP.ZavattiniG. C. (2014). What makes us stay together? Attachment and the outcomes of couple relationships. Karnac Books.
CollinsN. L. (1996). Working models of attachment: Implications for explanation, emotion, and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(4), 810–832. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.71.4.810
26.
CollinsN. L.ReadS. J. (1990). Adult attachment, working models, and relationship quality in dating couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(4), 644–663.
27.
CooperH.HedgesL. V. (1994). The handbook of research synthesis. Russell Sage Foundation.
28.
CostaD.BarrosH. (2016). Instruments to assess intimate partner violence: A scoping review of the literature. Violence and Victims, 31(4), 591–621.
29.
CozzarelliC.KarafaJ. A.CollinsN. L.TaglerM. J. (2003). Stability and change in adult attachment styles: Associations with personal vulnerabilities, life events and global construals of self and others. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22(3), 315–346. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.22.3.315.22888
30.
CraneC. A.HawesS. W.DevineS.EastonC. J. (2014). Axis I psychopathology and the perpetration of intimate partner violence. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70(3), 238–247.
DimaggioG.PopoloR.MontanoA.VelottiP.PerriniF.BuonocoreL.GarofaloC.D’AguannoM.SalvatoreG. (2017). Emotion dysregulation, symptoms and interpersonal problems as independent predictors of a broad range of personality disorders in an outpatient sample. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 90(4), 569–599. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12126
33.
DuvalS. (2005). The trim and fill method. In RothsteinH.SuttonA. J.BorensteinM. (Eds.), Publication bias in meta analysis: Prevention, assessment and adjustments (pp. 127–144). Wiley.
34.
DuvalS.TweedieR. (2000a). A nonparametric “trim and fill.” Method of accounting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 95, 89–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2669529
35.
DuvalS.TweedieR. (2000b). Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics, 56, 455–463. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0006-341X.2000.00455.x
36.
EggerM.Davey SmithG.SchneiderM.MinderC. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ, 315(7109), 629–634. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629
37.
ElisonJ.HarterS. (2007). Humiliation: Causes, correlates, and consequences. In TracyJ. L.RobinsR. W.TangneyJ. P. (Eds.), The self-conscious emotions: Theory and research (pp. 310–329). Guilford Press.
FeeneyJ. A. (2004). Transfer of attachment from parents to romantic partners: Effects of individual and relationship variables. Journal of Family Studies, 10(2), 220–238.
40.
FinkelE. J.SlotterE. B. (2006). An attachment theory perspective on the perpetuation of intimate partner violence. DePaul Law Review56(3), 895–907.
41.
FollingstadD. R.BradleyR. G.HelffC. M.LaughlinJ. E. (2002). A model for predicting dating violence: Anxious attachment, angry temperament, and need for relationship control. Violence and Victims, 17(1), 35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/vivi.17.1.35.33639
42.
FonagyP. (2003). Towards a developmental understanding of violence. British Journal of Psychiatry, 183(3), 190–192. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.183.3.190
43.
FraleyR. C.WallerN. G. (1998). Adult attachment patterns: A test of the typological model. In SimpsonJ.RholesW. (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 77–114). Guilford Press.
44.
FuZ.XuW.WamgJ. (2015). The mediating role of saving beliefs in relationship between attachment style, hoarding symptoms, and negative emotions. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 23, 660–664.
45.
García-MorenoC.JansenH. A.EllsbergM.HeiseL.WattsC. H. (2006). WHO multi-country study on women's health and domestic violence against women study team. Prevalence of intimate partner violence: findings from the WHO multi-country study on women's health and domestic violence. Lancet, 368(9543), 1260–1269. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69523-8
46.
García-MorenoC.PallittoC.DevriesK.StöcklH.WattsC.AbrahamsN. (2013). Global and regional estimates of violence against women: Prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence. World Health Organization.
47.
GarofaloC.NeumannC.VelottiP. (2018). Difficulties in emotion regulation and psychopathic traits in violent offenders. Journal of Criminal Justice, 57, 116–125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2018.05.013
48.
GarofaloC.VelottiP. (2017). Negative emotionality and aggression in violent offenders: The moderating role of emotion dysregulation. Journal of Criminal Justice, 51, 9–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.05.015
49.
GarofaloC.VelottiP.ZavattiniG. C. (2018). Emotion regulation and aggression: The incremental contribution of alexithymia, impulsivity, and emotion dysregulation facets. Psychology of Violence, 8(4), 470–483. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/vio0000141
50.
GignacG. E.SzodoraiE. T. (2016). Effect size guidelines for individual differences researchers. Personality and Individual Differences, 102, 74–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.06.069
51.
GillespieS.GarofaloC.VelottiP. (2018). Emotion regulation, mindfulness, and alexithymia: Specific or general impairments in sexual, violent, and homicide offenders? Journal of Criminal Justice, 58, 56–66. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21868
52.
*GodboutN.SabourinS.DuttonD.LussierY. (2009). Early exposure to violence, domestic violence, attachment representations, and marital adjustment. Personal Relationships16(3), 365–384. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2009.01228.x
53.
GoodwinS. N.ChandlerD.MeiselJ. (2003). Violence against women: The role of welfare reform, summary report. California Institute for Mental Health, & United States of America.
54.
GrahamJ. M.UnterschuteM. S. (2015). A reliability generalization meta-analysis of self-report measures of adult attachment. Journal of Personality Assessment, 97(1), 31–41. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1080/00223891.2014.927768
55.
Guzman-GonzalezM.LafontaineM.-F.LevesqueC. (2016). Romantic attachment and physical intimate partner violence perpetration in a Chilean sample: The mediating role of emotion regulation difficulties. Violence and Victims, (5), 854–868. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-14-00114
56.
HamillC. A.NewmanE.ToddL.PeckD. (2014). Attachment & violent offending: A meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior19(4), 322–339. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2014.04.007
57.
HammondW. R.AriasI. (2011). Broadening the approach to youth violence prevention through public health. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 39, 167–175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10852352.2011.556574
HedgesL. V.OlkinI. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Academic Press.
60.
HendersonA.BartholomewK.TrinkeS.KwongM. (2005). When loving means hurting: An exploration of attachment and intimate abuse in a community sample. Journal of Family Violence, 20(4), 219–230. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10896-005-5985-y
61.
HigginsJ. P. T.GreenS. (Eds.) (2008). Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions. Wiley.
62.
Holtzworth-MunroeA.StuartG. L.HutchinsonG. (1997). Violent versus nonviolent husbands: Differences in attachment patterns, dependency, and jealousy. Journal of Family Psychology, 11(3), 314–331. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.11.3.314
63.
HongJ. S.KimS. M.YoshihamaM.ByounS. J. (2011). Wife battering in South Korea: An ecological systems analysis. Children & Youth Services Review, 32(12), 1623–1630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.07.024
64.
JewellL. M.WormithJ. S. (2010). Variables associated with attrition from domestic violence treatment programs targeting male batterers: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(10), 1086–1113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854810376815
65.
JewkesR. (2002). Intimate partner violence: Causes and prevention. The Lancet, 359(9315), 1423–1429.
66.
JewkesR.LevinJ.Penn-KekanaL. (2002). Risk factors for domestic violence: Findings from a South African cross-sectional study. Social Science & Medicine, 55(9), 1603–1617.
67.
KarakurtG.DialS.KorkowH.MansfieldT.BanfordA. (2013). Experiences of marriage and family therapists working with intimate partner violence. Journal of Family Psychotherapy, 24(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/08975353.2013.762864
68.
KennyD. A.KashyD. A.CookW. L. (2006). Analyzing mixed independent variables: The actor-partner interdependence model. In SimpsonJ. A. (Ed.), Dyadic data analysis (pp. 144–184). The Guilford Press.
69.
KimmesJ. G.MalloryA. B.SpencerC.BeckA. R.CafferkyB.StithS. M., (2019). A meta-analysis of risk markers for intimate partner violence in same-sex relationships. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 20(3), 374–384. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838017708784
KobakR. R.SceeryA. (1988). Attachment in late adolescence: Working models, affect regulation, and representations of self and others. Child Development, 59(1), 135–146. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130395
72.
LafontaineM.LussierY. (2005). Does anger towards the partner mediate and moderate the link between romantic attachment and intimate violence?Journal of Family Violence, (6), 349–361. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10896-005-7797-5
73.
LandoltM. A.DuttonD. G. (1997). Power and personality: An analysis of gay male intimate abuse. Sex Roles, 37(5-6), 335–359.
74.
Langhinrichsen-RohlingJ.MisraT. A.SelwynC.RohlingM. L. (2012). Rates of bidirectional versus unidirectional intimate partner violence across samples, sexual orientations, and race/ethnicities: A comprehensive review. Partner Abuse, 3(2), 199–230.
75.
*LawsonD. M., (2008). Attachment, interpersonal problems, and family of origin functioning: Differences between partner violent and non-partner violent men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 9(2), 90–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1524-9220.9.2.90
76.
LipseyM. W.WilsonD. B. (2001). Applied social research methods series, Vol. 49. Practical meta-analysis. Sage.
MayselessO. (1991). Adult attachment patterns and courtship violence. Family Relations: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 40(1), 21–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/585654
79.
McDermottR. C.ChengH.-L.LopezF. G.McKelveyD.BatemanL. S. (2017). Dominance orientations and psychological aggression in college student relationships: A test of an attachment theory-guided model. Psychology of Violence, 7(4), 508–520.
80.
McShaneK. E.HastingsP. D. (2004). Culturally sensitive approaches to research on child development and family practices in first peoples communities. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 1(1), 31–46.
81.
MeltonH. C.BelknapJ. (2003). He hits, she hits: Assessing gender differences and similarities in officially reported intimate partner violence. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 30, 328–348.
82.
MikulincerM. (1998). Attachment working models and the sense of trust: An exploration of interaction goals and affect regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(5), 1209–1224. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1209
83.
MikulincerM.ShaverP. R. (2003). The attachment behavioral system in adulthood: Activation, psychodynamics, and interpersonal processes. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 56–152.
84.
MikulincerM.ShaverP. R. (2005). Mental representations of attach- ment security: Theoretical foundation for a positive social psychology. In BaldwinM. W. (Ed.), Interpersonal cognition (pp. 233–266). Guilford Press.
85.
MikulincerM.ShaverP. R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. Guilford Press.
86.
MikulincerM.ShaverP. R. (2016). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics and change (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
87.
MikulincerM.ShaverP. R. (2019). Attachment orientations and emotion regulation. Current Opinion in Psychology, 25, 6–10.
88.
ModestiP. A.ReboldiG.CappuccioF. P.AgyemangC.RemuzziG.RapiS.PerruoloE.ParatiG., & ESH Working Group on CV Risk in Low Resource Settings. (2016). Panethnic differences in blood pressure in Europe: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One, 11(1), e0147601. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147601
89.
MoherD.LiberatiR.TetzlaffJ.AltmanD. G., & Prisma Group. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Medicine, 6(7). http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097
90.
MullenJ. (1989). Nonverbal ability and hearing impaired. Psychology in the Schools, 26(1), 27–31.
91.
MullenJ.RosenthalR. (1985). BASIC meta-analysis: Procedures and programs. Lawrence Erlbaum.
92.
*MuñozJ. B. (2015). Adult attachment style and beliefs in relation to masculinity and femininity in men inflicting violence to their partners. Revista Austral De Ciencias Sociales, 29, 107–123.
93.
NakamuraM. S.KawabataY. (2019). The moderating roles of relational interdependence and gender on the association between attachment insecurity and relational aggression in Guam. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 10(1), 79–88.
94.
NeckowayR.BrownleeK.CastellanB. (2007). Is attachment theory consistent with aboriginal parenting realities?First Peoples Child & Family Review, 3(2), 65–74. https://fpcfr.com/index.php/FPCFR/article/view/43
95.
O’DriscollC.LaingJ.MasonO. (2014). Cognitive emotion regulation strategies, alexithymia and dissociation in schizophrenia, a review and meta- analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(6), 482–495. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2014.07.002
96.
*OrcuttH. K.GarciaM.PickettS. M.VictV. (2005). Female-perpetrated intimate partner violence and romantic attachment style in a college student sample. Violence and Victims, 20(3), 287–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/vivi.20.3.287
97.
OzcanN. K.GunaydinS.CitilE. T. (2016). Domestic violence against women in Turkey: A systematic review and meta analysis. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 30(5), 620–629. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2016.04.013
98.
PetermanA.BleckJ.PalermoT. (2015). Age and intimate partner violence: An analysis of global trends among women experiencing victimization in 30 developing countries. Journal of Adolescent Health, 57(6), 624–630.
99.
*PimentelV.SantelicesM. (2017). Adult attachment and mentalization in men who have used violence toward their partner. Psykhe, 26(2), 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.7764/psykhe.26.2.915
RuvoloA. P.FabinL. A.RuvoloC. M. (2001). Relationship experiences and change in attachment characteristics of young adults: The role of relationship breakups and conflict avoidance. Personal Relationships, 8(3), 265–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2001.tb00040.x
103.
SantambrogioJ.ColmegnaF.TrottaG.CavalleriP. R.ClericiM. (2019). Intimate partner violence (IPV) and associated factors: An overview of epidemiological and qualitative evidence in literature. Rivista di Psichiatria, 54(3), 97–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1708/3181.31598
104.
SetteG.CoppolaG.CassibbaR. (2015). The transmission of attachment across generations: The state of art and new theoretical perspectives. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 56(3), 315–326. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12212
105.
SiegelD. (1999). The developing mind: How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are. Guilford Press.
106.
SimpsonJ. A.RholesW. S. (1994). Stress and secure base relationships in adulthood. In BartholomewK.PerlmanD. (Eds.), Advances in personal relationships, Vol. 5. Attachment processes in adulthood (pp. 181–204). Jessica Kingsley.
107.
*SommerJ.BabcockJ.SharpC. (2017). A dyadic analysis of partner violence and adult attachment. Journal of Family Violence32(3), 279–290. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10896-016-9868-1
108.
SparrowK.DicksonH.MacManusD.KwanJ.HowardL.FearN. (2018). Prevalence of self-reported intimate partner violence victimization among military personnel: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1524838018782206
109.
SpencerC.MalloryA. B.CafferkyB. M.KimmesJ. G.BeckA. R.StithS. M. (2019). Mental health factors and intimate partner violence perpetration and victimization: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Violence, 9(1), 1–17.
110.
StithS. M.SmithD. B.PennC. E.WardD. B.TrittD. (2004). Intimate partner physical abuse perpetration and victimization risk factors: A meta-analytic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(1), 65–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2003.09.001
111.
StrausM. A. (1979). Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics Scales. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 41, 75–88.
StuartG. L.MooreT. M.GordonK. C.RamseyS. E.KahlerC. W. (2006). Psychopathology in women arrested for domestic violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(3), 376–389.
114.
TarziaL.ForsdikeK.FederG.HegartyK. (2020). Interventions in health settings for male perpetrators or victims of intimate partner violence. Trauma Violence Abuse, 21(1), 123–137. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838017744772
115.
van der PutC. E.GubbelsJ.AssinkM. (2019). Predicting domestic violence: A meta-analysis on the predictive validity of risk assessment tools. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 47, 100–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.03.008
116.
van IJzendoornM. H.SagiA. (1999). Cross-cultural patterns of attachment: Universal and contextual dimensions. In CassidyJ.ShaverP. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications (pp. 713–734). Guilford Press.
117.
VelottiP.BalzarottiS.TagliabueS.ZavattiniG. C.GrossJ. (2016). Emotional suppression in early marriage: Actor, partner and similarity effects on marital quality. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 33(3), 277–302. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0265407515574466
118.
VelottiP.Beomonte ZobelS.RogierG.TambelliR. (2018). Exploring relationships: A systematic review on intimate partner violence and attachment. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01166
119.
VelottiP.CastellanoR.ZavattiniG. C. (2011). Adjustment of couples following childbirth: The role of generalized and specific states of mind in an Italian sample. European Psychologist, 16(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000022
120.
VelottiP.GarofaloC.BottazziF.CarettiV. (2017). Faces of shame: Implications for self-esteem, emotion regulation, aggression, and well-being. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 151(2), 171–184. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2016.1248809
121.
VelottiP.GarofaloC.CalleaA.BucksR.RobertonT.DaffernM. (2017). Exploring anger among offenders: The role of emotion dysregulation and alexithymia. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 28(1), 128–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2016.1164639
122.
WatersE.MerrickS.TrebouxD.CrowellJ.AlbersheimL. (2000). Attachment security in infancy and early adulthood: A twenty-year longitudinal study: The stability of attachment security from infancy to adolescence and early. Child Development, (3), 684–689. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00176
123.
WellsG. A.SheaB.O’ConnellD.PetersenJ.WelchV.LososM.TugwellP. (2011). The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for assessing the quality of nonrandomized studies in meta-analyses. Department of Epidemiology and Community Medicine, University of Ottawa. http://www.ohri.ca/programs/clinical_epidemiology/oxford.asp
124.
WilliamsJ. R.GhandourR. M.KubJ. E. (2008). Female perpetration of violence in heterosexual intimate relationships: Adolescence through adulthood. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 9(4), 227–249. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838008324418
125.
WoodhouseS.AyersS.FieldA. P. (2015). The relationship between adult attachment style and post-traumatic stress symptoms: A meta-analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 35, 103–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.07.002
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
