The Differential Effects of Insecure Attachment on Post-Traumatic Stress: A Systematic Review of Extant Findings and Explanatory Mechanisms

Abstract

It is well-documented that insecure attachment poses substantial risks to post-trauma recovery. Although attachment anxiety reliably predicts and is associated with elevated post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), the attachment avoidance–PTSS link has been far less consistent. This suggests both attenuating and enhancing connections between attachment difficulties and post-trauma outcomes. The goal of this study is 2-fold: (a) to review and summarize extant evidence concerning the relation between insecure attachment and PTSS and (b) to review mechanism(s) underlying attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance that may explain the development of PTSS. Following a systematic review of the empirical literature investigating attachment, trauma, and post-trauma reactions, a total of 138 studies were identified and summarized. The review further identifies explanatory mechanisms underlying the association between insecure attachment and PTSS, including stress appraisals, cognitive factors, self-esteem, emotion regulation strategies, social factors, and trauma-specific factors (i.e., type of trauma, extreme stress). Implications for practice, policy, and research are discussed.

Keywords

insecure attachment avoidant anxious trauma mechanisms systematic review psychopathology

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Ainsworth

M. S.

Blehar

M. C.

Waters

Wall

(1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Potomac, MD: Lawrence Erlbaum.

*Alexander

P. C.

(1993). The differential effects of abuse characteristics and attachment in the prediction of long-term effects of sexual abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8, 346–362. doi:10.1177/088626093008003004

*Alexander

P. C.

Anderson

C. L.

Brand

Schaeffer

C. M.

Grelling

B. Z.

Kretz

(1998). Adult attachment and long-term effects in survivors of incest. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22, 45–61. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00120-8

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.

*An

Yuan

Liu

Zhou

(2018). Dispositional mindfulness mediates the relationships of parental attachment to posttraumatic stress disorder and academic burnout in adolescents following the Yancheng tornado. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9, 1472989. doi:10.1080/20008198.2018.1472989

*Andersen

T. E.

Elklit

Vase

(2011). The relationship between chronic whiplash-associated disorder and post-traumatic stress: Attachment-anxiety may be a vulnerability factor. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 2, 5633–5642. doi:10.3402/ejpt.v2i0.5633

*Andersen

T. E.

Lahav

Mikulincer

Solomon

(2015). Attachment security and pain—The disrupting effect of captivity and PTSS. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 79, 471–476. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.10.008

*Arikan

Stopa

Carnelley

K. B.

Karl

(2016). The associations between adult attachment, posttraumatic symptoms, and posttraumatic growth. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 29, 1–20. doi:10.1080/10615806.2015.1009833

10.

*Armour

Elklit

Shevlin

(2011). Attachment typologies and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression and anxiety: A latent profile analysis approach. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 2, 6018. doi:10.3402/ejpt.v2i0.6018

11.

*Ayotte

Lanctot

Tourigny

(2017). The association between the working alliance with adolescent girls in residential care and their trauma-related symptoms in emerging adulthood. Child Youth Care Forum, 46, 601–620. doi:10.1007/s10566-017-9398-x

12.

*Bachem

Levin

Solomon

(2018). Trajectories of attachment in older age: Interpersonal trauma and its consequences. Attachment & Human Development, 4, 1–20. doi:10.1080/14616734.2018.1479871

13.

Bartholomew

Horowitz

L. M.

(1991). Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 226–244. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.226

14.

*Benoit

Bouthillier

Moss

Rousseau

Brunet

(2010). Emotion regulation strategies as mediators of the association between level of attachment security and PTSD symptoms following trauma in adulthood. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 23, 101–118. doi:10.1080/10615800802638279

15.

*Berant

Pizem

(2015). Rescue volunteers’ posttraumatic symptoms, distress, and fear of death: Attachment insecurity moderates. Death Studies, 39, 121–127. doi:10.1080/07481187.2014.913087

16.

*Berry

Ford

Jellicoe-Jones

Haddock

(2015). Trauma in relation to psychosis and hospital experiences: The role of past trauma and attachment. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 88, 227–239. doi:10.1111/papt.12035

17.

*Besser

Neria

(2010). The effects of insecure attachment orientations and perceived social support on posttraumatic stress and depressive symptoms among civilians exposed to the 2009 Israel–Gaza war: A follow-up cross-lagged panel design study. Journal of Research in Personality, 44, 335–341. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2010.03.004

18.

*Besser

Neria

(2012). When home isn’t a safe haven: Insecure attachment orientations, perceived social support, and PTSD symptoms among Israeli evacuees under missile threat. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4, 34–46. doi:10.1037/a0017835

19.

*Besser

Neria

Haynes

(2009). Adult attachment, perceived stress, and PTSD among civilians exposed to ongoing terrorist attacks in Southern Israel. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 851–857. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.07.003

20.

*Bistricky

S. L.

Gallagher

M. W.

Roberts

C. M.

Ferris

Gonzalez

A. J.

Wetterneck

C. T.

(2017). Frequency of interpersonal trauma types, avoidant attachment, self-compassion, and interpersonal competence: A model of persisting posttraumatic symptoms. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 26, 608–625. doi:10.1080/10926771.2017.1322657

21.

*Bogaerts

Daalder

A. L.

Van Der Knaap

L. M.

Kunst

M. J. J. M.

Buschman

(2008). Critical incident, adult attachment style, and posttraumatic stress disorder: A comparison of three groups of security workers. Social Behavior and Personality, 36, 1063–1072. doi:10.2224/sbp.2008.36.8.1063

22.

*Bogaerts

Kunst

M. J. J.

Winkel

F. W.

(2009). Dismissive attachment and posttraumatic stress disorder among securely and insecurely attached Belgian security workers. Psychological Reports, 105, 889–899. doi:10.2466/PR0.105.3.889-899

23.

*Bosqui

T. J.

Marshoud

Shannon

(2017). Attachment insecurity, posttraumatic stress, and hostility in adolescents exposed to armed conflict. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 23, 372–382. doi:10.1037/pac0000260

24.

Bowlby

(1982). Attachment and loss, Vol. 1: Attachment. New York, NY: Basic Books. (Originally work published 1969)

25.

Brennan

K. A.

Clark

C. L.

Shaver

P. R.

(1998). Self-report measurement of adult romantic attachment: An integrative overview. In Simpson

J. A.

Rholes

W. S.

(Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 46–76). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

26.

*Browne

Winkelman

(2007). The effect of childhood trauma on later psychological adjustment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22, 684–697. doi:10.1177/0886260507300207

27.

*Bryant

R. A.

Creamer

O’Donnell

Forbes

Felmingham

K. L.

Silove

… Nickerson

(2017). Separation from parents during childhood trauma predicts adult attachment security and post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine, 47, 2028–2035. doi:10.1017/S0033291717000472

28.

*Busuito

Huth-Bocks

Puro

(2014). Romantic attachment as a moderator of the association between childhood abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Journal of Family Violence, 29, 567–577. doi:10.1007/s10896-014-9611-8

29.

Capaldi

D. M.

Knoble

N. B.

Shortt

J. W.

Kim

H. K.

(2012). A systematic review of risk factors for intimate partner violence. Partner Abuse, 3, 231–280. doi:10.1891/1946-6560.3.2.231

30.

*Clark

A. A.

Owens

G. P.

(2012). Attachment, personality characteristics, and posttraumatic stress disorder in U.S. veterans of Iraq and Afghanistan. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25, 657–664. doi:10.1002/jts.2176

31.

Cohen

Dekel

Solomon

(2002). Long-term adjustment and the role of attachment among Holocaust child survivors. Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 299–310. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00156-8

32.

*Cohen

Zerach

Solomon

(2011). The implication of combat-induced stress reaction, PTSD, and attachment in parenting among war veterans. Journal of Family Psychology, 25, 688–698. doi:10.1037/a0024065

33.

Cook

Spinazzola

Ford

Lanktree

Blaustein

Cloitre

… van der Kolk

(2005). Complex trauma in children and adolescence. Psychiatric Annals, 35, 390–398.

34.

*Currier

J. M.

Holland

J. M.

Allen

(2012). Attachment and mental health symptoms among U.S. Afghanistan and Iraq veterans seeking health care services. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25, 633–640. doi:10.1002/jts.21752

35.

*Declercq

Palmans

(2006). Two subjective factors as moderators between critical incidents and the occurrence of posttraumatic stress disorders: ‘Adult attachment’ and ‘perception of social support.’ Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 79, 323–337. doi:10.1348/147608305X53684

36.

*Declercq

Willemsen

(2006). Distress and post-traumatic stress disorders in high risk professionals: Adult attachment style and the dimensions of anxiety and avoidance. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 13, 256–263. doi:10.1002/cpp.492

37.

*Dekel

Mandl

Solomon

(2011). Shared and unique predictors of post-traumatic growth and distress. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 67, 241–252. doi:10.1002/jclp.20747

38.

*Dekel

Solomon

Ginzburg

Neria

(2004). Long-term adjustment among Israeli war veterans: The role of attachment style. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 17, 141–152. doi:10.1080/1061580041000172118

39.

*Dieperink

Leskela

Thuras

Engdahl

(2001). Attachment style classification and posttraumatic stress disorder in former prisoners of war. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 71, 374–378. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.71.3.374

40.

*Dutton

D. G.

Painter

(1993). Emotional attachments in abusive relationships: A test of traumatic bonding theory. Violence and Victims, 8, 105–120.

41.

*Ein-Dor

Doron

Solomon

Mikulincer

Shaver

P. R.

(2010). Together in pain: Attachment-related dyadic processes and posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57, 317–327. doi:10.1037/a0019500

42.

*Elklit

(2009). Traumatic stress and psychological adjustment in treatment-seeking women sexually abused in childhood: A follow-up. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 50, 251–257. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2008.00706.x

43.

*Elklit

(2015). Treatment of Danish survivors of child sexual abuse—A cohort study. Behavioral Science, 5, 589–601. doi:10.3390/bs5040589

44.

*Elklit

Christiansen

D. M.

Palic

Karsberg

Eriksen

S. B.

(2014). Impact of traumatic events on posttraumatic stress disorder among Danish survivors of sexual abuse in childhood. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 23, 918–934. doi:10.1080/10538712.2014.964440

45.

*Elklit

Karstoft

Lahav

Andersen

T. E.

(2016). Attachment and posttraumatic stress disorder in multiple trauma samples. Journal of Psychiatry, 19, 370. doi:10.4172/2378-5756.1000370

46.

*Elwood

L. S.

Williams

N. L.

(2007). PTSD-related cognitions and romantic attachment style as moderators of psychological symptoms in victims of interpersonal trauma. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26, 1189–1209. doi:10.1521/jscp.2007.26.10.1189

47.

*Escolas

S. M.

Arata-Maiers

Hilderbrandt

E. J.

Maiers

A. J.

Mason

S. T.

Baker

M. M. T.

(2012). The impact of attachment style on posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in postdeployed military members. U.S. Army Medical Department Journal, 3, 54–61.

48.

*Feldman

Vengrober

(2011). Posttraumatic stress disorder in infants and young children exposed to war-related trauma. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 50, 645–658. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.03.001

49.

*Ferrajão

P. C.

Badoud

Oliveira

R. A.

(2017). Mental strategies as mediators of the link between attachment and PTSD. Psychological trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9, 731–740. doi:10.1037/tra0000251

50.

*Ferrajão

P. C.

Oliveira

R. A.

(2015). Attachment patterns as mediators of the link between combat exposure and posttraumatic symptoms: A study among Portuguese war veterans. Military Psychology, 27, 185–195. doi:10.1037/mil0000075

51.

*Finzi-Dottan

Dekel

Lavi

Su’ali

(2006). Posttraumatic stress disorder reactions among children with learning disabilities exposed to terror attacks. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 47, 144–151. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2005.05.001

52.

*Forbes

Parslow

Fletcher

McHugh

Creamer

(2010). Attachment style in the prediction of recovery following group treatment of combat veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 12, 881–884. doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181fe73fa

53.

Fraley

R. C.

Davis

K. E.

Shaver

P. R.

(1998). Dismissing-avoidance and the defensive organization of emotion, cognition, and behavior. In Simpson

J. A.

Rholes

W. S.

(Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 249–279). New York, NY: Guilford.

54.

*Fraley

R. C.

Fazzari

D. A.

Bonanno

G. A.

Dekel

(2006). Attachment and psychological adaptation in high exposure survivors of the September 11th attack on the World Trade Center. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 538–551. doi:10.1177/0146167205282741

55.

Fraley

R. C.

Shaver

P. R.

(2000). Adult romantic attachment: Theoretical developments, emerging controversies, and unanswered questions. Review of General Psychology, 4, 132–154. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.4.2.132

56.

Fraley

R. C.

Waller

N. G.

Brennan

K. A.

(2000). An item response theory analysis of self-report measures of adult attachment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 350–365. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.2.350

57.

*Franz

C. E.

Lyons

M. J.

Spoon

K. M.

Hauger

R. L.

Jacobson

K. C.

Lohr

J. B.

… Kremen

W. S.

(2014). Post-traumatic stress symptoms and adult attachment: A 24 year longitudinal study. American Journal of Geriatric Psychology, 22, 1603–1612. doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2014.02.003

58.

*Frey

L. M.

Blackburn

K. M.

Werner-Wilson

R. J.

Parker

Wood

N. D.

(2011). Posttraumatic stress disorder, attachment, and intimate partner violence in a military sample: A preliminary analysis. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 23, 218–230. doi:10.1080/08952833.2011.604530

59.

*Gallagher

H. C.

Lusher

Gibbs

Pattison

Block

Harms

… Bryant

R. A.

(2017). Dyadic effects of attachment on mental health: Couples in a postdisaster context. Journal of Family Psychology, 31, 192–202. doi:10.1037/fam0000256

60.

*Gallagher

H. C.

Richardson

Forbes

Harms

Gibbs

Alkemade

… Bryant

R. A.

(2016). Mental health following separation in a disaster: The role of attachment. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 29, 56–64. doi:10.1002/jts.22071

61.

*Gao

Zhao

Cao

(2015). Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in first time myocardial infarction patients: Role of attachment and alexithymia. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 71, 2575–2584. doi:10.1111/jan.12726

62.

*Ghafoori

Hierholzer

R. W.

Howsepian

Boardman

(2008). The role of adult attachment, parental bonding, and spiritual love in the adjustment to military trauma. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, 9, 85–106. doi:10.1080/15299730802073726

63.

*Goodman

G. S.

Olge

C. M.

Block

S. D.

Harris

L. S.

Larson

R. P.

Augusti

… Urquiza

(2011). False memory for trauma-related Deese-Roediger-McDermott lists in adolescents and adults with histories of child sexual abuse. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 423–438. doi:10.1017/S0954579411000150

64.

*Gore-Felton

Ginzburg

Chartier

Gardner

Agnew-Blais

McGarvey

… Koopman

(2013). Attachment style and coping in relation to posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms among adults living HIV/AIDS. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 36, 51–60. doi:10.1007/s10865-012-9400-x

65.

*Halpern

Maunder

R. G.

Schwartz

Gurevich

(2011). Attachment insecurity, responses to critical incident distress, and current emotional symptoms in ambulance workers. Stress and Health, 28, 51–60. doi:10.1002/smi.1401

66.

*Harari

Bakermans-Kranenburg

M. J.

de Kloet

C. S.

Geuze

Vermetten

Westenberg

H. G. M.

van Ijzendoorn

M. H.

(2009). Attachment representations in Dutch veterans with and without deployment-related PTSD. Attachment & Human Development, 11, 515–536. doi:10.1080/14616730903282480

67.

*Haviland

M. G.

Sonne

J. L.

Woods

L. R.

(1995). Beyond posttraumatic stress disorder: Object relations and reality testing disturbances in physically and sexually abused adolescents. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1054–1059. doi:10.1097/00004583-199508000-00015

68.

Hazan

Shaver

(1987) Romantic Love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511–524. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511

69.

*Hébert

Daspe

Cyr

(2018). An analysis of avoidant and approach coping as mediators of the relationship between paternal and maternal attachment security and outcomes in child victims of sexual abuse. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 10, 402–410. doi:10.1037/tra0000321

70.

*Horesh

Cohen-Zrihen

Ein Dor

Solomon

(2014). Stressful life events across the life span and insecure attachment following combat trauma. Journal of Clinical Social Work, 42, 375–384. doi:10.1007/s10615-014-0477-2

71.

*Huang

Y. L.

Chen

S. H.

Y. J.

Kung

Y. W.

(2016) Attachment dimensions and posttraumatic symptoms following interpersonal traumas versus impersonal traumas in young adults in Taiwan. Stress & Health, 33, 233–243. doi:10.1002/smi.2702

72.

*Hughes

P. P.

Turton

Mcgauley

G. A.

Fonagy

(2006) Factors that predict infant disorganization in mothers classified as U in pregnancy. Attachment & Human Development, 8, 113–122. doi:10.1080/14616730600785660

73.

*Itzhaky

Stein

J. Y.

Levin

Solomon

(2017). Posttraumatic stress symptoms and marital adjustment among Israeli combat veterans: The role of loneliness and attachment. Psychological Trauma, 9, 655–662. doi:10.1037/tra0000259

74.

*Joubert

Webster

Hackett

R. K.

(2012). Unresolved attachment status and trauma-related symptomatology in maltreated adolescents: An examination of cognitive mediators. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 43, 471–483. doi:10.1007/s10578-011-0276-8

75.

*Kanninen

Punamäki

R. L.

Qouta

(2003). Personality and trauma: Adult attachment and posttraumatic distress among former political prisoners. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 9, 97–126. doi:10.1207/S15327949PAC0902_01

76.

*Karatzias

Shevlin

Hyland

Brewin

C. R.

Cloitre

Bradley

… Roberts

N. P.

(2018). The role of negative cognitions, emotion regulation strategies, and attachment style in complex post-traumatic stress disorder: Implications for new and existing therapies. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 57, 177–185. doi:10.1111/bjc.12172

77.

*Kelly

Garland

E. L.

(2016). Trauma-informed mindfulness-based stress reduction for female survivors of interpersonal violence: Results from a stage I RCT. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 72, 311–328. doi:10.1002/jclp.22273

78.

*Kindermann

Schmid

Derreza-Greeven

Huhn

Kohl

R. M.

Junne

… Nikendei

(2017). Prevalence of and risk factors for secondary traumatization in interpreters for refugees: A cross-sectional study. Psychopathology, 50, 262–272. doi:10.1159/000477670

79.

*La Flair

L. N.

Bradshaw

C. P.

Mendelson

Campbell

(2015). Intimate partner violence and risk of psychiatric symptoms: The moderating role of attachment. Journal of Family Violence, 30, 567–577. doi:10.1007/s1089

80.

*Lahav

Kanat-Maymon

Solomon

(2016). Secondary traumatization and attachment among wives of former POWs: A longitudinal study. Attachment & Human Development, 18, 141–153. doi:10.1080/14616734.2015.1121502

81.

*Lam

K. Y.

(2015). Disclosure and psychological well-being of sexually abused adolescents in Hong Kong. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 24, 731–752. doi:10.1080/10538712.2015.1077364

82.

*Lassri

Luyten

Cohen

Shahar

(2016). The effect of childhood emotional maltreatment on romantic relationships in young adulthood: A double mediation model involving self-criticism and attachment. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4, 504–511. doi:10.1037/tra0000134

83.

*Levendosky

A. A.

Huth-Bocks

Semel

M. A.

(2002). Adolescent peer relationships and mental health functioning in families with domestic violence. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31, 206–218. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3102_06

84.

*Lilly

M. M.

Lim

B. H. P.

(2013). Shared pathogeneses of posttrauma pathologies: Attachment, emotion regulation, and cognitions. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69, 737–748. doi:10.1002/jclp.21934

85.

*Lim

B. H. P.

Adams

L. A.

Lilly

M. M.

(2012). Self-worth as a mediator between attachment and posttraumatic stress in interpersonal trauma. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27, 2039–2061. doi:10.1177/0886260511431440

86.

*London

M. J.

Lilly

M. M.

Pittman

(2015). Attachment as a mediator between community violence and posttraumatic stress symptoms among adolescents with a history of maltreatment. Child Abuse and Neglect, 42, 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.11.002

87.

*Macdonald

H. Z.

Beeghly

Grant-Knight

Augustyn

Woods

R. W.

Carbral

… Frank

D. A.

(2008). Longitudinal association between infant disorganized attachment and childhood posttraumatic stress symptoms. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 493–508. doi:10.1017/S0954579408000242

88.

*Marmaras

Lee

S. S.

Siegel

Reich

(2003). The relationship between attachment styles and vicarious traumatization in female trauma therapists. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 26, 81–92. doi:10.1300/J005v26n01 07

89.

*Mikulincer

Ein-Dor

Solomon

Shaver

P. R.

(2011). Trajectories of attachment insecurities over a 17-year period: A latent growth curve analysis of the impact of war captivity and posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 30, 960–984. doi:10.1521/jscp.2011.30.9.960

90.

Mikulincer

Florian

(1995). Appraisal of and coping with a real-life stressful situation: The contribution of attachment styles. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 406–414. doi:10.1177/0146167295214011

91.

Mikulincer

Florian

(1998). The relationship between adult attachment styles and emotional and cognitive reactions to stressful events. In Simpson

J. A.

Rholes

W. S.

(Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 143–165). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

92.

Mikulincer

Florian

Weller

(1993). Attachment styles, coping strategies, and posttraumatic psychological distress: The impact of the Gulf War in Israel. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 817–826. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.64.5.817

93.

*Mikulincer

Horesh

Eilati

Kotler

(1999). The association between adult attachment style and mental health in extreme life-endangering conditions. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 831–842. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00032-X

94.

*Mikulincer

Shaver

P. R.

Horesh

(2006). Attachment bases of emotion regulation and posttraumatic adjustment. In Snyder

D. K.

Simpson

Hughes

J. N.

(Eds.), Emotion regulation in couples and families: Pathways to dysfunction and health (pp. 77–99). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

95.

*Muller

R. T.

Lemieux

K. E.

(2000). Social support, attachment, and psychopathology in high risk formerly maltreated adults. Child Abuse & Neglect, 24, 883–900. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(00)00150-2

96.

*Muller

R. T.

Rosenkranz

S. E.

(2009). Attachment and treatment response among adults in inpatient treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Psychotherapy Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 46, 82–96. doi:10.1037/a0015137

97.

*Muller

R. T.

Sicoli

L. A.

Lemieux

K. E.

(2000). Relationship between attachment style and posttraumatic stress symptomatology among adults who report the experience of childhood abuse. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 321–332. doi:10.1023/A:1007752719557

98.

*Murphy

Elklit

Hyland

Shevlin

(2016). Insecure attachment orientations and posttraumatic stress in a female treatment-seeking sample of survivors of childhood sexual abuse: A cross-lagged panel study. Traumatology, 22, 48–55. doi:10.1037/trm0000060

99.

*Nye

E. C.

Katzman

Bell

J. B.

Kilpatrick

Brainard

Haaland

K. Y.

(2008). Attachment organization in Vietnam combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Attachment and Human Development, 10, 41–57. doi:10.1080/14616730701868613

100.

*O’Connor

Elklit

(2008). Attachment styles, traumatic events, and PTSD: A cross-sectional investigation of adult attachment and trauma. Attachment & Human Development, 10, 59–71. doi:10.1080/14616730701868597

101.

*Ogle

C. M.

Rubin

D. C.

Siegler

I. C.

(2015). The relation between insecure attachment and posttraumatic stress: Early life versus adulthood traumas. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 7, 324–332. doi:10.1037/tra0000015

102.

*Ogle

C. M.

Rubin

D. C.

Siegler

I. C.

(2016a). Accounting for posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity with pre- and posttrauma measures: A longitudinal study of older adults. Clinical Psychological Science, 4, 272–286. doi:10.1177/2167702615583227

103.

*Ogle

C. M.

Rubin

D. C.

Siegler

I. C.

(2016b). Maladaptive trauma appraisals mediate the relation between attachment anxiety and PTSD symptom severity. Psychological Trauma, 8, 301–309. doi:10.1037/tra0000112

104.

*Okello

Nakimuli-Mpungu

Musisi

Broekaert

Derluyn

(2014). The association between attachment and mental health symptoms among school-going adolescents in Northern Uganda: The moderating role of war-related trauma. PLoS One, 9, e88494. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0088494

105.

*Ortigo

K. M.

Westen

DeFife

J. A.

Bradley

(2013). Attachment, social cognition, and posttraumatic stress symptoms in a traumatized, urban population: Evidence for the mediating role of object relations. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 361–368. doi:10.1002/jts.21815

106.

*Overbeek

M. M.

de Schipper

J. C.

Lamers-Winkelman

Schuengel

(2014). Risk factors as moderators of recovery during and after interventions for children exposed to interparental violence. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84, 295–306. doi:10.1037/ort0000007

107.

*Owens

G. P.

(2016). Predictors of posttraumatic growth and posttraumatic stress symptom severity in undergraduates reporting potentially traumatic events. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 72, 1064–1076. doi:10.1002/jclp.22309

108.

*Owens

G. P.

Held

Blackburn

Auerbach

J. S.

Clark

A. A.

Herrera

C. J.

… Stuart

G. L.

(2014). Differences in relationship conflict, attachment, and depression in treatment-seeking veterans with hazardous substance use, PTSD, or PTSD and hazardous substance use. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29, 1318–1337. doi:10.1177/0886260513506274

109.

Ozer

E. J.

Best

S. R.

Lipsey

T. L.

Weiss

D. S.

(2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 52–73. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.1.52

110.

*Palosaari

Punamaki

Qouta

Diab

(2013). Intergenerational effects of war trauma among Palestinian families mediated via psychological maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37, 955–968. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.04.006

111.

*Picken

A. L.

Berry

Tarrier

Barrowclough

(2010). Traumatic events, posttraumatic stress disorder, attachment style, and working alliance in a sample of people with psychosis. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 198, 775–778. doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181f4b163

112.

*Pietrzak

R. H.

Cook

J. M.

(2013). Psychological resilience in older U.S. veterans: Results from the national health and resilience in veterans study. Depression and Anxiety, 30, 432–443. doi:10.1002/da.22083

113.

*Pow

A. M.

Cashwell

C. S.

(2017). Posttraumatic stress disorder and emotion-focused coping among disaster mental health counselors. Journal of Counseling and Development, 95, 322–331. doi:10.1002/jcad.12146

114.

*Powers

Fani

Carter

Cross

Cloitre

Bradley

(2017). Differential predictors of DSM-5 PTSD and ICD-11 complex PTSD among African American women. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8, 1338914. doi:10.1080/20008198.2017.1338914

115.

*Punamaki

Qouta

Peltonen

(2017). Family systems approach to attachment relations, war trauma, and mental health among Palestinian children and parents. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8, 1439649. doi:10.1080/20008198.2018.1439649

116.

*Renaud

E. F.

(2008). The attachment characteristics of combat veterans with PTSD. Traumatology, 14, 2–12. doi:10.1177/1534765608319085

117.

*Riber

(2016) Attachment organization in Arabic-speaking refugees with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Attachment & Human Development, 18, 154–175. doi:10.1080/14616734.2015.1124442

118.

*Riggs

S. A.

Paulson

Tunnell

Sahl

Atkison

Ross

C. A.

(2007a). Attachment, personality, and psychopathology among adult inpatients: Self-reported romantic attachment style versus Adult Attachment Interview states of mind. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 263–291. doi:10.10170S0954579407070149

119.

*Riggs

S. A.

Sahl

Greenwald

Atkinson

Paulson

Ross

C. A.

(2007b). Family environment and adult attachment as predictors of psychopathology and personality dysfunction among inpatient abuse survivors. Violence and Victims, 5, 577–598. doi:10.1891/088667007782312159

120.

*Rosario

Salzinger

Feldman

R. S.

Ng-Mak

D. S.

(2008). Intervening processes between youths’ exposure to community violence and internalizing symptoms over time: The roles of social support and coping. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41, 43–62. doi:10.1007/s10464-007-9147-7

121.

*Ruhlmann

L. M.

Gallus

K. L.

Durtschi

J. A.

(2018). Exploring relationship satisfaction and attachment behaviors in single- and dual-trauma couples: A pilot study. Traumatology, 24, 27–35. doi:10.1037/trm0000129

122.

*Sandberg

D. A.

(2010). Adult attachment as a predictor of posttraumatic stress and dissociation. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 11, 293–307. doi:10.1080/15299731003780937

123.

*Sandberg

D. A.

Suess

E. A.

Heaton

J. L.

(2010). Attachment anxiety as a mediator of the relationship between interpersonal trauma and posttraumatic symptomatology among college women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 33–49. doi:10.1177/0886260508329126

124.

*Santa-Maria

M. L.

Cornille

(2007). Traumatic stress, family separations, and attachment among Latin American immigrants. Traumatology, 13, 26–31. doi:10.1177/1534765607302278

125.

*Sautter

F. J.

Glynn

S. M.

Cretu

J. B.

Senturk

Vaught

A. S.

(2015). Efficacy of structured approach therapy in reducing PTSD in returning veterans: A randomized clinical trial. Psychological Services, 12, 199–212. doi:10.1037/ser0000032

126.

*Schechter

D. S.

Moser

D. A.

Pointet

V. C.

Aue

Stenz

Paoloni-Giacobino

… Dayer

A. G.

(2017). The association of serotonin receptor 3A methylation with maternal violence exposure, neural activity, and child aggression. Behavioral Brain Research, 325, 268–277. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2016.10.009

127.

*Scheidt

C. E.

Hasenburg

Kunze

Waller

Pfeifer

Zimmermann

… Waller

(2012). Are individual differences of attachment predicting bereavement out-come after perinatal loss? A prospective cohort study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 73, 375–382. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2012.08.017

128.

*Schierholz

Krüger

Barenbrügge

Ehring

(2016). What mediates the link between childhood maltreatment and depression? The role of emotion dysregulation, attachment, and attributional style. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 7, 32652. doi:10.3402/ejpt.v7.32652

129.

*Scott

Babcock

(2009). Attachment as a moderator between intimate partner violence and PTSD symptoms. Journal of Family Violence, 25, 1–9. doi:10.1007/s10896-009-9264-1

130.

*Shallcross

S. L.

Frazier

Anders

S. L.

(2014). Social resources mediate the relations between attachment dimensions and distress following potentially traumatic events. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 3, 352–362. doi:10.1037/a0036583

131.

*Shura

R. D.

Rutherford

B. J.

Fugett

Lindberg

M. A.

(2017). An exploratory study of attachments and posttraumatic stress in combat veterans. Current Psychology, 36, 110–118. doi:10.1007/s12144-015-9390-2

132.

*Sippel

L. M.

Han

Watkins

L. E.

Harpaz-Rotem

Southwick

S. M.

Krystal

J. H.

… Pietrzak

R. H.

(2017). Oxytocin receptor gene polymorphisms, attachment, and PTSD: Results from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study. Journal of Psychiatry Research, 94, 139–147. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.07.008

133.

*Smith

L. S.

Stover

C. S.

(2016). The moderating role of attachment on the relationship between history of trauma and intimate partner violence victimization. Violence Against Women, 22, 745–764. doi:10.1177/1077801215610863

134.

Solomon

Benbenishty

Neria

Abramowitz

Ginzburg

Ohry

(1993). Assessment of PTSD: Validation of the revised PTSD Inventory. The Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Science, 30, 110–115.

135.

*Solomon

Dekel

Mikulincer

(2008). Complex trauma of war captivity: A prospective study of attachment and post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine, 38, 1427–1434. doi:10.1017/S0033291708002808

136.

*Solomon

Ginzburg

Mikulincer

Neria

Ohry

(1998). Coping with war captivity: The role of attachment style. European Journal of Personality, 12, 271–285. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0984

137.

*Stalker

C. A.

Gebotys

Harper

(2005). Insecure attachment as a predictor of outcome following inpatient trauma treatment for women survivors of child abuse. The Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 69, 137–156. doi:10.1521/bumc.69.2.137.66508

138.

*Stovall-McClough

K. C.

Cloitre

(2003). Reorganization of unresolved childhood traumatic memories following exposure therapy. Annals New York Academy of Sciences, 1008, 297–299. doi:10.1196/annals.1301.036

139.

*Stovall-McClough

K. C.

Cloitre

(2006). Unresolved attachment, PTSD, and dissociation in childhood abuse histories. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 219–228. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.74.2.219

140.

*Tamman

A. J. F.

Sippel

L. M.

Han

Neria

Krystal

J. H.

Southwick

S. M.

… Pietrzak

R. H.

(2017). Attachment style moderates effects of FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood abuse on post-traumatic stress symptoms: Results from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 5, 1–12. doi:080/15622975.2017.1376114

141.

*Tavakoli

Chen

M. W.

Zook

Bethea

(2015). Attachment, combat exposure, and post-trauma cognitions as predictors of PTSD and PTG in veterans. Journal of Military and Government Counseling, 3, 113–130.

142.

*Tosone

McTighe

J. P.

Bauwens

(2015). Shared traumatic stress among social workers in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. British Journal of Social Work, 45, 1313–1329. doi:10.1093/bjsw/bct194

143.

*Tosone

McTighe

J. P.

Bauwens

Naturale

(2011). Shared traumatic stress and the long-term impact of 9/11 on Manhattan clinicians. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24, 546–552. doi:10.1002/jts.20686

144.

*Turunen

Haravuori

Punamaki

Suomalainen

Marttunen

(2014). The role of attachment in recovery after a school-shooting trauma. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5, 22728. doi:10.3402/ejpt.v5.22728

145.

Van der Hal-van Raalte

Van Ijzendoorn

M. H.

Bakermans-Kranenburg

M. J.

(2007). Quality of care after early childhood trauma and well-being in later life: Child Holocaust survivors reaching old age. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77, 514–522. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.77.4.514

146.

*Van Dijke

Hopman

J. A. B.

Ford

J. D.

(2018). Affect dysregulation, psychoform dissociation, and adult relational fears mediate the relationship between childhood trauma and complex posttraumatic stress disorder independent of the symptoms of borderline personality disorder. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9, 1400878. doi:10.1080/20008198.2017.1400878

147.

*van Ijzendoorn

M. H.

Sagi-Schwartz

(2008). Cross-cultural patterns of attachment: Universal and contextual dimensions. In Cassidy

Shaver

P. R.

(Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 880–905). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

148.

*Venta

Hatkevich

Mellick

Vanwoerden

Sharp

(2017). Social cognitive mediates the relation between attachment schemas and posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9, 88–95. doi:10.1037/tra0000165

149.

*Volgin

Bates

(2016). Attachment and social support as predictors of posttraumatic stress and posttraumatic growth. Traumatology, 22, 184–191. doi:10.1037/trm0000083

150.

*Waldman-Levi

Finzi-Dottan

Weintraub

(2015). Attachment security and parental perception of competency among abused women in the shadow of PTSD and childhood exposure to domestic violence. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24, 57–65. doi:10.1007/s10826-013-9813-3

151.

Waldinger

R. J.

Schulz

M. S.

Barsky

A. J.

Ahern

D. K.

(2006). Mapping the road from childhood trauma to adult somatization: The role of attachment. Psychosomatic Medicine, 68, 129–135. doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000195834.37094.a4

152.

Waller

Scheidt

C. E.

Hartmann

(2004). Attachment representation and illness behavior in somatoform disorders. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 192, 200–209. doi:10.1097/01.nmd.0000116463.17588.07

153.

*Waugh

M. J.

Robbins

Davies

Feigenbaum

(2007). The long-term impact of war experiences and evacuation on people who were children during World War Two. Aging and Mental Health, 11, 168–174. doi:10.1080/13607860600844473

154.

Wayment

H. A.

Vierthaler

(2002). Attachment and style and bereavement reactions. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 7, 129–149. doi:10.1080/153250202753472291

155.

Weathers

Litz

Herman

Huska

Keane

(1993). The PTSD Checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, San Antonio, TX.

156.

Woodhouse

Ayers

Field

A. P.

(2015). The relationship between adult attachment style and posttraumatic stress symptoms: A meta-analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorder, 35, 103–117. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.07.002

157.

*Woodward

M. J.

Patton

S. C.

Olsen

S. A.

Jones

J. M.

Reich

C. M.

… Beck

J. G.

(2013). How do attachment style and social support contribute to women’s psychopathology following intimate partner violence? Examining clinician ratings versus self-report. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 3, 312–320. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.02.007

158.

*Zakin

Solomon

Neria

(2003). Hardiness, attachment style, and long term psychological distress among Israeli POWs and combat veterans. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 819–829. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00073-9

159.

*Zerach

Greene

Solomon

(2015). Secondary traumatization and marital adjustment among former prisoners of war wives. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 20, 336–353. doi:10.1080/15325024.2014.885270

160.

*Zerach

Solomon

(2016). A relational model for the intergenerational transmission of captivity trauma: A 23-year longitudinal study. Psychiatry, 79, 297–316. doi:10.1080/00332747.2016.1142775

161.

*Zerach

Tam

(2016). The relationships between family functioning and attachment orientations to post-traumatic stress symptoms among young adults who were evacuated from Gaza Strip settlements as adolescents. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 29, 153–172. doi:10.1080/10615806.2015.1014998

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.06 MB

0.05 MB