The rate of drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA; when an incapacitating drug is administered surreptitiously to facilitate sexual assault) is perceived to be increasing in the United Kingdom and elsewhere, causing international concern. This article examines evidence that quantifies the contribution of drugs in instances of alleged DFSA, identifies the substances involved, and discusses the implications of these findings. Of 389 studies examined, 11 were included in this review. The only study to consider covert drugging reported that 2% of alleged DFSA cases were attributable to surreptitious drug administration. Other studies failed to remove voluntary drug consumption from their cohort, biasing results. A study by the United Kingdom's National Forensic Services found no evidence to suggest that flunitrazepam (Rohypnol) had been used for DFSA during its 3-year investigation. In the United States, flunitrazepam is used recreationally, providing a likely explanation for its presence in samples of some alleged DFSA victims.
Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs. ( 2007). Drug facilitated sexual assault. Retrieved September 2007 from http://drugs.homeoffice.gov.uk/324026/461229/ACMD_DFSA_Report__FINAL___13.pdf
2.
Armstrong, R. (1997). When drugs are used for rape. Journal of Emergency Nursing, 23, 378-381.
3.
Association of Chief Police Officers. (2006 ). Operation MATISSE: Investigating Drug Facilitated Sexual Assault. Retrieved September 2007 from http://www.cmmc.nhs.uk/directorates/smc/pdf/Op%20Matisse%20published%20report%20ACPO.pdf
4.
Bellis, M.A., Hughes, K., Bennett, A., & Thomson, R. (2003). The role of an international nightlife resort in the proliferation of recreational drugs. Addiction, 98, 1713-1721.
5.
Bellis, M.A., Hughes, K., Hughes, S., & Ashton, J.R. (2005). Measuring parental discrepancy and its public health consequences. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 59, 749-754.
6.
Beynon, C.M., Sumnall, H.R., McVeigh, J., Cole, J.C., & Bellis, M.A. (2006a). The ability of two commercially available quick test kits to detect drug-facilitated sexual assault drugs in beverages. Addiction, 101, 1413-1420.
7.
Beynon, C.M., Sumnall, H.R., McVeigh, J., Cole, J.C., & Bellis, M.A. (2006b). Drink Detective: Comments on the manufacturer's response. Addiction, 101, 1394-1395.
8.
Boussairi, A., Dupeyron, J.P., Hernandez, B., Delaitre, D., Beugnet, L., Espinoza, P., et al. (1996). Urine benzodiazepines screening of involuntarily drugged and robbed or raped patients. Journal of Toxicology-Clinical Toxicology, 34, 721-724.
9.
Department of Transport. (2006). THINK! Summer 2007 campaign. Retrieved May 2007 from http://www.thinkroadsafety.gov.uk/campaigns/drinkdrive/drinkdrive.htm
10.
Drug-Induced Rape Prevention and Punishment Act, H.R.4137, (1996).
11.
ElSohly, M.A., & Salamone, S.J. (1999). Prevalence of drugs used in cases of alleged sexual assault. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 23, 141-146.
12.
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. (2006). Annual report 2006: The state of the drugs problem in Europe. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
13.
Executive Office of the President. (2003). Rohypnol. Washington, DC: Executive Office of the President, Office of National Drug Control Policy .
14.
Goulle, J.P., & Anger, J.P. (2004). Drug-facilitated robbery or sexual assault: Problems associated with amnesia. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring, 26, 206-210.
15.
Grossin, C., Sibille, I., Lorin de la Grandmaison, L., Banasr, A., Brion, F., & Durigon, M. (2003). Analysis of 418 cases of sexual assault. Forensic Science International, 131, 125-130.
16.
Health and Social Care Information Centre. ( 2006). Prescription cost analysis, England 2005. Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.ic.nhs.uk/pubs/prescostanalysis2005/final/file
17.
Higgins J. P. T., & Green, S. (Eds.). (2005). Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions (Version 4.2.4; updated March 2005; Cochrane Library, Issue 2). Chichester, UK: Wiley .
18.
Hindmarch, I., & Brinkmann, R. (1999). Trends in the use of alcohol and other drugs in cases of sexual assault. Human Psychopharmacology, 14, 225-231.
19.
Hindmarch, I., ElSohly, M., Gambles, J., & Salamone, S. (2001). Forensic urinalysis of drug use in cases of alleged sexual assault. Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine, 8, 197-205.
20.
Jones, G. (2007, May 21). Revealed: The danger zones for women in Sydney-City's rape risk areas. The Daily Telegraph, Edition 2-Extended Metro, p. 9.
21.
Juhascik, M., Le, N.L., Tomlinson, K., Moore, C., Gaensslen, R.E., & Negrusz, A. (2004). Development of an analytical approach to the specimens collected from victims of sexual assault. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 28, 400-406.
22.
Julien, R. (1997). A Primer of drug action (pp. 119, 330-331). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
23.
Kintz, P., Villain, M., & Ludes, B. (2004). Testing for the undetectable in drug-facilitated sexual assault using hair analyzed by tandem mass spectrometry as evidence . Therapeutic Drug Monitoring, 26, 211-214.
24.
Kronz, C.S. (2000). A 30-year-old woman with possible unknown ingestion of date rape drugs. Journal of Emergency Nursing, 26, 544-548.
25.
Li, J. (1999). The new "Mickey Finn specials"-should GHB and ketamine be banned? Journal of the American Pharmacists Association , 39, 442-443.
26.
Marc, B., Baudry, F., Vaquero, P., Zerrouki, L., Hassnaoui, S., & Douceron, H. (2000). Sexual assault under benzodiazepine submission in a Paris suburb. Archive of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 263, 193-197.
27.
Maxwell, J., & Spence, R. (2005). Profiles of club drug users in treatment. Substance Use & Misuse, 40, 1409-1426.
28.
Meyers, J.E., & Almirall, J.R. (2005). A study of the effectiveness of commercially available drink test coasters for the detection of "date rape" drugs in beverages. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 28, 685-688.
29.
Mullins, M.E. (1999). Laboratory confirmation of flunitrazepam in alleged cases of date rape. Academic Emergency Medicine, 6, 966-968.
30.
National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2006). Club drugs. Retrieved May 2007 from http://www.nida.nih.gov/pdf/infofacts/ClubDrugs06.pdf
31.
Negrusz, A., Moore, C.M., Stockham, T.L., Poiser, K.R., Kern, J.L., Palaparthy, R., et al. (2000). Elimination of 7-aminoflunitrazepam and flunitrazepam in urine after a single dose of Rohypnol. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 45, 1031-1040.
32.
Office of Public Sector Information. (2003 ). Sexual Offences Act 2003. Retrieved September 2007 from http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2003/ukpga_20030042_en_1.htm
33.
Parliamentary Assembly. (2006). Sexual assaults linked to "date-rape drugs" (Doc. 11038). Retrieved March 2006 from http://assembly.coe.int/Mainf.asp?link=/Documents/WorkingDocs/Doc06/EDOC11038.htm
34.
Rickert, V., Wiemann, C.M., & Berenson, A.B. (1999). Prevalence, patterns, and correlates of voluntary flunitrazepam use. Paediatrics , 103, 1-5.
35.
Roe, S., & Man, L. (2006). Drug misuse declared: findings from the 2005/06 British Crime Survey (p. 45). London: Home Office.
36.
Roofie Foundation. (2006). The Roofie Foundation statistical update: January 2006. Retrieved March 2007 from http://www.roofie.com/The%20Roofie%20Foundations%20Statistical%20Update2005.pdf
37.
Scott-Ham, M., & Burton, F. (2005). Toxicological findings in cases of alleged drug-facilitated sexual assault in the United Kingdom over a 3-year period. Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine, 12, 175-186.
38.
Scott-Ham, M., & Burton, F. (2006). A study of blood and urine alcohol concentrations in cases of alleged drug-facilitated sexual assault in the United Kingdom over a 3-year period. Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine , 13, 107-111.
39.
Slaughter, L. (2000). Involvement of drugs in sexual assault. The Journal of Reproductive Medicine, 45, 425-430.
40.
Smith, K.M. (1999). Drugs used in acquaintance rape. Journal of the American Pharmacists Association, 39, 519-525.
41.
Sumnall, H.R., Wagstaff, G.R., & Cole, J.C. (2004). Self reported psychopathology in polydrug users . Journal of Psychoparmacology, 18, 63-69.
42.
Taylor, B. (2003, November 11). One in 25 at a nightclub "spiked."Daily Mail, p. 33.
43.
Teesson, M., Baillie, A., Lynskey, M., Manor, B., & Degenhardt, T. (2005). Substance use, dependence and treatment seeking in the United States and Australia: A cross-national comparison. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 81, 149-155.
44.
Vega, W., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Andrade, L., Bijl, R., Borges, G., Caraveo-Anduaga, J., et al. (2002). Prevalence and age of onset for drug use in seven international sites: results from the international consortium of psychiatric epidemiology. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 68, 285-297.
45.
Villain, M., Chèze, M., Dumestre, V., Ludes, B., & Kintz, P. (2004). Hair to document drug-facilitated crimes: Four cases involving bromazepam. Journal of Analytical Toxicology , 28, 516-519.
46.
Walby, S., & Allen, J. (2004). Domestic violence, sexual assault and stalking: Home Office Research Study 276 (p. 94). London: Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate.
47.
Wells, D. (2001). Drug administration and sexual assault: Sex in a glass. Science & Justice, 41, 197-199.
48.
World Health Organization. (2003). Guidance for medico- legal care for victims of sexual violence (p. 8). Geneva: Author.
49.
Wu, L., Schlenger, W., & Galvin, D. (2007). Concurrent use of methamphetamine, MDMA, LSD, ketamine, GHB, and flunitrazepam amongAmerican youths. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 86, 102-113.
