Violent acts are sometimes committed by people who do not normally appear violent or aggressive. This simple observation and others have led some to speculate about a relationship between dissociation and violence. However, no systematic review of the literature has so far been published. To address this gap, studies assessing the prevalence of dissociation among violent individuals, and violence among highly dissociative persons, are reviewed. Possible links between dissociation and violent behavior are explored. It is concluded that dissociation predicts violence in a wide range of populations and may be crucial to an understanding of violentbehavior. There is a clear need, however, for large scale, well-designed studies using reliable structured instruments in a number of areas reviewed. Recommendations for clinical applications include the routine screening of offenders for dissociative disorders and adequate consideration of dissociation and dissociative disorders in the development and implementation of violence treatment and prevention programs.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th revised ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
3.
Athens, L. H. (1989). The creation of dangerous violent criminals. London: Routledge.
4.
Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
5.
Bliss, E. L., & Larson, E. M. (1985). Sexual criminality and hypnotizability. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 173(9), 522-526.
6.
Booth, B. A., & Mehew, E. (Eds.). (1995). The letters of Robert Louis Stevenson (Vol. 5). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
7.
Bourget, D., & Bradford, J. M. (1995). Sex offenders who claim amnesia for their alleged offense. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry & the Law, 23(2), 299-307.
8.
Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129-148.
9.
Bradford, J. W., & Smith, S. M. (1979). Amnesia and homicide: The Padola case and a study of thirty cases. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry & the Law, 7(3), 219-231.
10.
Bremner, J. D., Southwick, S., Brett, E., Fontana, A., Rosenheck, R., & Charney, D. S. (1992). Dissociation and posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam combat veterans. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149(3), 328-332.
11.
Brinded, P. M. J., Simpson, A. I. F., Laidlaw, T. M., Fairley, N., & Malcolm, F. (2001). Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in New Zealand prisons: A national study. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 35, 166-173.
12.
Burton, D., Foy, D. W., Bwanausi, C., Johnson, J., & Moore, L. (1994). The relationship between traumatic exposure, family dysfunction, and post-traumatic stress symptoms in male juvenile offenders. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7(1), 83-93.
13.
Campbell, L. M. (2000). Dissociative tendencies and violent behavior in a male forensic psychiatric population. Dissertation Abstracts International, 60(8-B). (University Microfilms No. 4206)
14.
Cardena, E., & Spiegel, D. (1993). Dissociative reactions to the San Francisco Bay Area earthquake of 1989. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150(3), 474-478.
15.
Carlier, I. V. E., Lamberts, R. D., Fouwels, A. J., & Gersons, B. P. R. (1996). PTSD in relation to dissociation in traumatized police officers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(10), 1325-1328.
16.
Carlisle, A. L. (1991). Dissociation and violent criminal behavior. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 7(4), 273-285.
17.
Carlisle, A. L. (1993). The divided self: Toward an understanding of the dark side of the serial killer. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 17(2), 23-36.
18.
Carlson, E. B., & Putnam, F. W. (1993). An update on the Dissociative Experiences Scale. Dissociation: Progress in the Dissociative Disorders, 6(1), 16-27.
19.
Carrion, V. G., & Steiner, H. (2000). Trauma and dissociation in delinquent adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(3), 353-359.
20.
Collins, J. J., & Bailey, S. L. (1990). Traumatic stress disorder and violent behavior. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 3(2), 203-220.
21.
Coons, P. M. (1991). Iatrogenesis and malingering of multiple personality disorder in the forensic evaluation of homicide defendants. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 14(3), 757-768.
22.
Cuartas, A. S. (2002). Dissociation in male batterers. Dissertation Abstracts International, 62(11-A). (University Microfilms No. 3698)
23.
Dell, P. F., & Eisenhower, J. W. (1990). Adolescent multiple personality disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 359-366.
24.
Diamond, B. (1969, September). Interview regarding Sirhan Sirhan. Psychology Today, pp. 48-55.
25.
Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1990). Mechanisms in the cycle of violence. Science, 250, 1678-1683.
26.
Dunn, G. E., Paolo, A. M., Ryan, J. J., & Van Fleet, J. (1993). Dissociative symptoms in a substance abuse population. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1043-1047.
27.
Dutton, D. G., Fehr, B., & McEwen, H. (1982). Severe wife battering as deindividuated violence. Victimology: An International Journal, 7(1-4), 13-23.
28.
Egeland, B., & Susman-Stillman, A. (1996). Dissociation as a mediator of child abuse across generations. Child Abuse & Neglect, 11, 1123-1132.
29.
Ellason, J. W., & Ross, C. A. (1999). Childhood trauma and dissociation in male sex offenders. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 6(2), 105-110.
30.
Ellenberger, H. F. (1970). The discovery of the unconscious: The history and evolution of dynamic psychiatry. New York: Basic Books.
31.
Eronen, M., Angermeyer, M. C., & Schulze, B. (1998). The psychiatric epidemiology of violent behaviour. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology, 33(Suppl. 1), S13-S23.
32.
Febbo, S., Hardy, F., & Finlay-Jones, R. (1993-1994). Dissociation and psychological blow automatism in Australia. International Journal of Mental Health, 22, 39-59.
33.
Friedl, M. C., Draijer, N., & de Jonge, P. (2000). Prevalence of dissociative disorders in psychiatric in-patients: The impact of study characteristics. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 102(6), 423-428.
34.
Friedrich, W. N., Gerber, P. N., Koplin, B., Davis, M., Giese, J., Mykelbust, C., et al. (2001). Multimodal assessment of dissociation in adolescents: Inpatients and juvenile sex offenders. Sexual Abuse: Journal of Research & Treatment, 13(3), 167-177.
35.
Gilligan, J. (1996). Violence: Our deadly epidemic and its causes. New York: G. P. Putnam.
36.
Good, M. I. (1989). Substance-induced dissociative disorders and psychiatric nosology. Journal of Clinical Psycho-pharmacology, 9, 88-93.
37.
Goodwin, D. W., Crane, J. B., & Guze, S. B. (1969). Phenomenological aspects of the alcoholic “blackout.” British Journal of Psychiatry, 115, 1033-1038.
38.
Goodwin, D. W., Othmer, E., Halikas, J. A., & Freemon, F. (1970). Loss of short-term memory as a predictor of the alcoholic “blackout.” Nature, 227(11), 201-202.
39.
Graham, K. R. (1993). Toward a better understanding and treatment of sex offenders. International Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative Criminology, 37(1), 41-57.
40.
Gudjonsson, G. H., Hannesdottir, K., & Petursson, H. (1999). The relationship between amnesia and crime: The role of personality. Personality & Individual Differences, 26(3), 505-510.
41.
Gudjonsson, G. H., Petursson, H., Skulason, S., & Siguroardottir, H. (1989). Psychiatric evidence: A study of psychological issues. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 80, 165-169.
42.
Guttmacher, M. S. (1955). Psychiatry and the law. New York: Grune & Stratton.
43.
Haapasalo, J., & Pokela, E. (1999). Child-rearing and child abuse antecedents of criminality. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 4(1), 107-127.
44.
Hall, P. E. (1989). Multiple personality disorder and homicide: Professional and legal issues. Dissociation: Progress in the Dissociative Disorders, 2(2), 110-115.
45.
Holcomb, W. R., & Daniel, A. E. (1988). Homicide without an apparent motive. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 6(3), 429-437.
46.
Hopwood, J. S., & Snell, H. K. (1933). Amnesia in relation to crime. Journal of Mental Science, 79, 27-41.
47.
Jang, K. L., Paris, J., Zweig-Frank, H., & Livesley, W. J. (1998). Twin study of dissociative experience. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 186(6), 345-351.
48.
Kaplan, M. L., Erensaft, M., Sanderson, W. C., Wetzler, S., Foote, B., & Asnis, G. M. (1998). Dissociative symptomatology and aggressive behavior. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 39(5), 271-276.
49.
Keyes, D. (1981). The minds of Billy Milligan. New York: Random House.
50.
Kihlstrom, J. F., Tataryn, D. J., & Hoyt, I. P. (1993). Dissociative disorders. In P. B. Sutker & H. E. Adams (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 203-234). New York: Plenum.
51.
Kluft, R. P. (1984). Treatment of multiple personality disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 7, 9-29.
52.
Kluft, R. P. (1987a). The parental fitness of mothers with multiple personality disorder: A preliminary study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 11, 273-280.
53.
Kluft, R. P. (1987b). First-rank symptoms as a diagnostic clue to multiple personality disorder. 144(3), 293-298.
54.
Kluft, R. P. (1994). Dissociative disorders. In M. Hersen, R. T. Ammerman, & L. A. Sisson (Eds.), Handbook of aggressive and destructive behavior in psychiatric patients (pp. 237-259). New York: Plenum.
55.
Kopelman, M. D. (1987). Crime and amnesia: A review. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 5(3), 323-342.
56.
Kruger, C., & Mace, C. J. (2002). Psychometric validation of the State Scale of Dissociation (SSD). Psychology & Psychotherapy, 75(Pt. 1), 33-51-.
57.
Kulka, R. A., Schlenger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Hough, R. L., Jordan, B. K., Marmar, C. R., et al. (1990). Trauma and the Vietnam War generation: Report of findings from the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
58.
Landsman, K. J. (1999). Personality, dissociation, and anger in male batterers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park.
59.
Lasko, N. B., Gurvits, T. V., Kuhne, A. A., Orr, S. P., & Pitman, R. K. (1994). Aggression and its correlates in Vietnam veterans with and without chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 35(5), 373-381.
60.
Leitch, A. (1948). Notes on amnesia in crime for the general practitioner. Medical Press, 219, 459-463.
61.
Lewis, D. O. (1998). Guilty by reason of insanity: Apsychiatrist explores the minds of killers. New York: Ballantine.
62.
Lewis, D. O., Yeager, C. A., Swica, Y., Pincus, J. H., & Lewis, M. (1997). Objective documentation of child abuse and dissociation in 12 murderers with dissociative identity disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(12), 1703-1710.
63.
Link, B. G., & Stueve, A. (1994). Psychotic symptoms and the violent/illegal behavior of mental patients compared to community controls. In J. Monahan & H. J. Steadman (Eds.), Violence and mental disorder: Developments in risk assessment (pp. 137-159). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
64.
Link, B. G., Stueve, A., & Phelan, J. (1998). Psychotic symptoms and violent behaviors: Probing the components of “threat/control-override” symptoms. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology, 33(Suppl. 1), S55-S60.
65.
Lisman, S. A. (1974). Alcoholic “blackout”: State dependent learning? Archives of General Psychiatry, 30, 46-53.
66.
Loewenstein, R. J., & Putnam, F. W. (1990). The clinical phenomenology of males with MPD: A report of 21 cases. Dissociation: Progress in the Dissociative Disorders, 3(3), 135-143.
67.
Mann, B. J. (1995, April). The North Carolina Dissociation Index: A measure of dissociation using items from the MMPI-2. Journal of Personality Assessment, 64(2).
68.
McSherry, B. (1998). Getting away with murder? Dissociative states and criminal responsibility. International Journal of Law & Psychiatry, 21(2), 139-151.
69.
Megargee, E. I. (1966). Undercontrolled and over-controlled personality types in extreme antisocial aggression. Psychological Monographs, 80(611), 1-29.
70.
Meloy, J. R. (1988). The psychopathic mind: Origins, dynamics, and treatment. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.
71.
Meloy, J. R., Hempel, A. G., Mohandie, K., Shiva, A. A., & Gray, B. T. (2001). Offender and offense characteristics of a nonrandom sample of adolescent mass murderers. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(6), 719-728.
72.
Milner, J. S. (1986). The Child Abuse Potential Inventory manual (2nd ed.). DeKalb, IL: Psytec.
73.
Milner, J. S. (1994). Assessing physical child abuse risk: The Child Abuse Potential Inventory. Clinical Psychology Review, 14, 547-583.
74.
Milner, J. S., Robertson, K. R., & Rogers, D. L. (1990). Childhood history of abuse and adult child abuse potential. Journal of Family Violence, 5, 15-33.
75.
Monahan, J. (1992). Mental disorder and violent behavior: Perceptions and evidence. American Psychologist, 47(4), 511-521.
76.
Moskowitz, A. (2001). The prevalence of dissociation in offender, psychiatric, and substance abuse populations: A pilot study. Unpublished data.
77.
Moskowitz, A. (in press). Dissociative pathways to homicide: A proposed typology. Journal of Truma and Dissociation.
78.
Narang, D. S. (2002). A developmental model explaining dissociation’s mediation of the intergenerational cycle of child abuse. Dissertation Abstracts International, 62(11-B). (University Microfilms No. 5385)
79.
Narang, D. S., & Contreras, J. M. (2000). Dissociation as a mediator between child abuse history and adult abuse potential. Child Abuse & Neglect, 24(5), 653-665.
80.
Nijenhuis, E. R. S. (1996). Dissociative identity disorder in a forensic psychiatric patient: A case report. Dissociation: Progress in the Dissociative Disorders, 9(4), 282-288.
81.
Nijenhuis, E. R. S., Vanderlinden, J., & Spinhoven, P. (1998). Animal defensive reactions as a model for traumainduced dissociative reactions. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11(2), 243-260.
82.
Novaco, R. W., & Chemtob, C. M. (1998). Anger and trauma: Conceptualization, assessment, and treatment. In V. M. Follette, J. I. Ruzek, & F. R. Abueg (Eds.), Cognitive-behavioral therapies for trauma (pp. 162-190). New York: Guilford.
83.
Novaco, R. W., & Chemtob, C. M. (2002). Anger and combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15(2), 123-132.
84.
Noyes, R., Hoenk, P. R., Kuperman, S., & Slymen, D. J. (1977). Depersonalization in accident victims and psychiatric patients. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 164(6), 401-407.
85.
O’Connell, B. A. (1960). Amnesia and homicide. British Journal of Delinquency, 10, 262-276.
86.
Parwatikar, S. D., Holcomb, W. R., & Menninger, K. A. (1985). The detection of malingered amnesia in accused murderers. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry & the Law, 13(1), 97-103.
87.
Perry, B. D. (1997). Incubated in terror: Neurodevelopmental factors in the “cycle of violence. ” In J. Osofsky (Ed.), Children, youth and violence: The search for solutions (pp. 124-148). New York: Guilford.
88.
Perry, B. D., Pollard, R. A., Blakely, T., Baker, W., & Vigilante, D. (1995). Childhood trauma, the neurobiology of adaptation, and “use-dependent” development of the brain: How “states” become “traits.” Infant Mental Health Journal, 16(4), 271-291.
89.
Porter, S., Birt, A. R., Yuille, J. C., & Herve, H. F. (2001). Memory for murder: A psychological perspective on dissociative amnesia in legal contexts. International Journal of Law & Psychiatry, 24(1), 23-42.
90.
Porteus, A. J., & Taintor, Z. (2000). Violence and dissociation. In M. L. Crowner (Ed.), Understanding and treating violent psychiatric patients (60th ed., pp. 121-145). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
91.
Power, D. J. (1977). Memory, identification and crime. Medicine, Science, and the Law, 17, 132-139.
92.
Putnam, F. W. (1989). Diagnosis and treatment of multiple personality disorder. New York: Guilford.
93.
Putnam, F. W., Guroff, J. J., Silberman, E. K., Barban, L., & Post, R. K. (1986). The clinical phenomenology of multiple personality disorder: Review of 100 recent cases. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 47(6), 285-293.
94.
Quimby, L. G., & Putnam, F. W. (1991). Dissociative symptoms and aggression in a state mental hospital. Dissociation: Progress in the Dissociative Disorders, 4(1), 21-24.
95.
Rak, C. F. (2002). Heroes in the nursery: Three case studies in resilience. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 58(3), 247-260.
96.
Redondo, B. M. (1997). Sexual abuse and dissociation in state prison populations. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University of Pennsylvania.
97.
Ressler, R. K., Burgess, A. W., & Douglas, J. E. (1988). Sexual homicide: Patterns and motives. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books/D. C. Heath.
98.
Rivard, J. M., Dietz, P., Martell, D., & Widawski, M. (2002). Acute dissociative responses in law enforcement officers involved in critical shooting incidents: The clinical and forensic implications. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 47(5), 1093-1100.
99.
Rogers, R. (1997). Clinical assessment of malingering and deception (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.
100.
Ross, C. A., Heber, S., Norton, C. A., Anderson, G., & Barchet, P. (1989). The Dissociative Disorders Interview Schedule: A structured interview. Dissociation: Progress in the Dissociative Disorders, 2, 169-189.
101.
Ross, C. A., Kronson, J., Koensgen, S., Barkman, K., Clark, P., & Rockman, G. (1992). Dissociative comorbidity in 100 chemically dependent patients. Hospital & Community Psychiatry, 43(8), 840-842.
102.
Ross, C. A., Miller, S. D., Reagor, P., Bjornson, L., Fraser, G. A., & Anderson, G. (1990). Schneiderian symptoms in multiple personality disorder and schizophrenia. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 31(2), 111-118.
103.
Ross, C. A., & Norton, G. R. (1989). Differences between men and women with multiple personality disorder. Hospital & Community Psychiatry, 40(2), 186-188.
104.
Ruchkin, V. V., Schwab-Stone, M., Koposov, R., Vermeiren, R., & Steiner, H. (2002). Violence exposure, posttraumatic stress, and personality in juvenile delinquents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(3), 322-329.
105.
Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57(3), 316-331.
106.
Sadoff, R. L. (1974). Evaluation of amnesia in criminal-legal situations. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 19(1), 98-101.
107.
Salley, R. D., & Teiling, P. A. (1984). Dissociated rage attacks in a Vietnam veteran: A Rorschach study. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48(1), 98-104.
108.
Schacter, D. L. (1986). Amnesia and crime: How much do we really know? American Psychologist, 41(3), 286-295.
109.
Schapiro, J. A., Glynn, S. M., Foy, D. W., & Yavorsky, C. (2002). Participation in war-zone atrocities and trait dissociation among Vietnam veterans with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 3(2), 107-114.
110.
Shalev, A. Y. (2002). Acute stress reactions in adults. Biological Psychiatry, 51(7), 532-543.
111.
Shalev, A. Y., Peri, T., Canetti, L., & Schreiber, S. (1996). Predictors of PTSD in injured trauma survivors: A prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(2), 219-225.
112.
Silva, J. A., Derecho, D. V., Leong, G. B., Weinstock, R., & Ferrari, M. M. (2001). A classification of psychological factors leading to violent behavior in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 46(2), 309-316.
113.
Simoneti, S., Scott, E. C., & Murphy, C. M. (2000). Dissociative experiences in partner-assaultive men. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15(12), 1262-1283.
114.
Snow, M. S. (1998). The multidimensionality of dissociation and related clinical symptomatology in a jail population. Dissertation Abstracts International, 59(5-A). (University Microfilms No. 1475)
115.
Snow, M. S., Beckman, D., & Brack, G. (1996). Results of the Dissociative Experiences Scale in a jail population. Dissociation: Progress in the Dissociative Disorders, 9(2), 98-103.
116.
Song, L. Y., Singer, M. I., & Anglin, T. M. (1998). Violence exposure and emotional trauma as contributors to adolescents’ violent behaviors. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 152(6), 531-536.
117.
Speigel, D., & Cardena, E. (1991). Disintegrated experience: The dissociative disorders revisited. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100(3), 366-378.
118.
Spinelli, M. G. (2001). A systematic investigation of 16 cases of neonaticide. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(5), 811-813.
119.
Spitzer, C., Dudeck, M., Liss, H., Orlob, S., Gillner, M., & Freyberger, H. J. (2001). Post-traumatic stress disorder in forensic inpatients. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, 12(1), 63-77.
120.
Stein, A. (2000). Dissociation and crime: Abuse, mental illness, and violence in the lives of incarcerated men. Dissertation Abstracts International, 61(4-A). (University Microfilms No. 1626)
121.
Stein, A., Lewis, D. O., & Yeager, C. A. (1993). The Juvenile Justice Assessment Instrument. Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 44(3), 91-102.
122.
Steinberg, M. (1994). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM IV Dissociative Disorders (SCID-D), Revised. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
123.
Steinberg, M. (1995). Handbook for the assessment of dissociation: Aclinical guide. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
124.
Steiner, H., Garcia, I. G., & Matthews, Z. (1997). Posttraumatic stress disorder in incarcerated juvenile delinquents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(3), 357-365.
125.
Stevenson, R. L. (1923). The strange case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. London: Eveleigh Nash & Grayson. (Original work published 1886)
126.
Storm, T., & Smart, R. G. (1965). Dissociation: A possible explanation of some features of alcoholism and implications for treatment. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 26, 111-115.
127.
Swanson, J. W., Borum, R., Swartz, M. S., & Monahan, J. (1996). Psychotic symptoms and disorders and the risk of violent behaviour in the community. Criminal Behaviour & Mental Health, 6(4), 309-329.
128.
Swanson, J. W., Holzer, C. E., III, Ganju, V. K., & Jono, R. T. (1990). Violence and psychiatric disorder in the community: Evidence from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area surveys. Hospital & Community Psychiatry, 41(7), 761-770.
129.
Swihart, G., Yuille, J., & Porter, S. (1999). The role of state-dependent memory in “red-outs.” International Journal of Law & Psychiatry, 22(3-4), 199-212.
130.
Tanay, E. (1969). Psychiatric study of homicide. American Journal of Psychiatry, 125(9), 146-153.
131.
Taylor, A. J. W. (1997). Flashback to buried memories of sexual abuse in a case of homicide. The Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies. Retrieved July 10, 1999, from http://www.massey.ac.nz/trauma/issues/1997-2/taylor1.htm
132.
Taylor, P. J., & Gunn, J. (1984a). Violence and psychosis: 1. Risk of violence among psychotic men. British Medical Journal, Clinical Research, 288, 1945-1949.
133.
Taylor, P. J., & Gunn, J. (1984b). Violence and psychosis: II. Effect of psychiatric diagnosis on conviction and sentencing of offenders. British Medical Journal, Clinical Research, 289, 9-12.
134.
Taylor, P. J., & Kopelman, M. D. (1984). Amnesia for criminal offences. Psychological Medicine, 14, 581-588.
135.
Uchinuma, Y., & Sekine, Y. (2000). Dissociative identity disorder (DID) in Japan: A forensic case report and the recent increase in reports of DID. International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice, 4(2), 155-160.
136.
Van der Kolk, B. A., McFarlane, A. C., & Weisaeth, L. (Eds.). (1996). Traumatic stress: The effect of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society. New York: Guilford.
137.
Walker, A. (2002). Dissociation in incarcerated juvenile male offenders—A pilot study in Australia. Psychiatry, Psychology & Law, 9(1), 56-61.
138.
Waller, N. G., Putnam, F. W., & Carlson, E. B. (1996). Types of dissociation and dissociative types: A taxometric analysis of dissociative experiences. Psychological Methods, 1(3), 300-321.
139.
Waller, N. G., & Ross, C. A. (1997). The prevalence and biometric structure of pathological dissociation in the general population: Taxometric and behavior genetic findings. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(4), 499-510.
140.
Ward, J. D. (1995). Dissociation and other defense mechanisms among convicted sex offenders and multiple personality disorders. Dissertation Abstracts International, 56(3-B). (University Microfilms No. 1714)
141.
Weiler, B. L., & Widom, C. S. (1996). Psychopathy and violent behaviour in abused and neglected young adults. Criminal Behaviour & Mental Health, 6(3), 253-271.
142.
Wenzel, K., Bernstein, D. P., Handelsman, L., Rinaldi, P., Ruggiero, J., & Higgins, B. (1996). Levels of dissociation in detoxified substance abusers and their relationship to chronicity of alcohol and drug use. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 184(4), 220-227.
143.
Widom, C. S. (1989). The cycle of violence. Science, 244, 160-166.
144.
Wilson, J. Q. (1997). Mitigating circumstances: Law, science and personal responsibility. New York: Basic Books.
145.
Wolf, A. S. (1980). Homicide and blackout in Alaskan natives: Areport and reproduction of five cases. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 41(5), 456-462.
146.
Wolfe, D. A., Scott, K., Wekerle, C., & Pittman, A. L. (2001). Child maltreatment: Risk of adjustment problems and dating violence in adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(3), 282-289.
147.
Yates, J. L., & Nasby, W. (1995). Dissociation, affect and network models of memory: An integrative proposal. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 649-673.
148.
Zoellner, L. A., Alvarez-Conrad, J., & Foa, E. B. (2002). Peritraumatic dissociative experiences, trauma narratives, and trauma pathology. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15(1), 49-57.
149.
Zucker, D. K., Austin, F. M., & Branchey, L. (1985). Variables associated with alcoholic blackouts in men. American Journal of Drug & Alcohol Abuse, 11(3-4), 295-302.
150.
Carlisle, A. L. (1993). The divided self: Toward an understanding of the dark side of the serial killer. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 17(2), 23-36.
151.
Carrion, V. G., & Steiner, H. (2000). Trauma and dissociation in delinquent adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(3), 353-359.
152.
Lewis, D. O., Yeager, C. A., Swica, Y., Pincus, J. H., & Lewis, M. (1997). Objective documentation of child abuse and dissociation in 12 murderers with dissociative identity disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(12), 1703-1710.
153.
Porter, S., Birt, A. R., Yuille, J. C., & Herve, H. F. (2001). Memory for murder: A psychological perspective on dissociative amnesia in legal contexts. International Journal of Law & Psychiatry, 24(1), 23-42.
154.
Simoneti, S., Scott, E. C., & Murphy, C. M. (2000). Dissociative experiences in partner-assaultive men. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15(12), 1262-1283.
