Four facets of leaving an abusive relationship are reviewed: (a) factors related to initially leaving an abusive partner; (b) the process of leaving an abusive relationship; (c) the psychological well-being of survivors after leaving; and (d) the predictors of this well-being. The conceptual and methodological limitations of studies in each of these areas are presented. Consistently found predictors of leaving include both material and psychological factors. Because battered women typically undergo several shifts in their thinking about the abuse before leaving permanently, research on leaving as a process is highlighted. A stress-process framework is used to explain the seemingly paradoxical finding that some women just out of the abusive relationship may have greater psychological difficulties than those who are still in it. For those experiencing the most stress, psychological health can worsen over time. Researchers and practitioners need to pay more attention to the plight of women who have left abusive partners.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
2.
Aguirre, B. (1985). Why do they return? Abused wives in shelters. Social Work, 30, 350-354.
3.
Aldarondo, E. (1996). Cessation and persistence of wife assault: A longitudinal analysis. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 66(1), 141-151.
4.
Amato, P., & Partridge, S. (1987). Widows and divorcees with dependent children: Material, personal, family, and social well-being. Family Relations, 36, 316-320.
5.
Anderson, D. (2001). Predicting long-term psychological wellbeing in women who have left their abusive partners. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan.
6.
Anderson, D., Saunders, D., Yoshihama, M., Bybee, D., & Sullivan, C. (in press). Long-term trends in psychological well-being among women separated from abusive partners. Violence Against Women.
7.
Angless, T., Maconachie, M., & Van Zyl, M. (1998). Battered women seeking solutions: A South African study. Violence Against Women, 4(6), 637-657.
8.
Astin, M., Lawrence, K., & Foy, D. (1993). Posttraumatic stress disorder among battered women: Risk and resiliency factors. Violence and Victims, 8(1), 17-28.
9.
Bachman, R., & Saltzman, L. (1995). Violence against women: Estimates from the redesigned survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
10.
Barnett, O., & LaViolette, A. (1993). It could happen to anyone: Why battered women stay. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
11.
Benight, C., Swift, E., Sanger, J. Smith, A., & Zeppelin, D. (1999). Coping self-efficacy as a mediator of distress following a natural disaster. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29(12), 2443-2464.
12.
Berman, W. (1988). The relationship of ex-spouse attachment to adjustment following divorce. Journal of Family Psychology, 1(3), 312-328.
13.
Bianchi, S., Subaiya, L., & Kahn, J. (1999). The gender gap in the economic well-being of nonresident fathers and custodial mothers. Demography, 36(2), 195-203.
14.
Bowker, L. (1983). Beating wife beating. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
15.
Brown, B., & Foye, B. (1982). Divorce as a dual transition: Interpersonal loss and role restructuring. In V. Allen & E. van de Vliert (Eds.), Role transitions: Explorations and explanations (pp. 315-329). New York: Plenum.
16.
Brown, J. (1997). Working toward freedom from violence: The process of change in battered women. Violence Against Women, 3(1), 5-26.
17.
Browne, A., & Bassuk, S. (1997). Intimate violence in the lives of homeless and poor housed women: Prevalence and patterns in an ethnically diverse sample. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 67(2), 261-278.
18.
Buehler, C., Hogan, M., Robinson, B., & Levy, R. (1985-1986). The parental transition: Divorce-related stressors and well-being. Journal of Divorce, 9(2), 61-79.
19.
Burke, J., Gielen, A., McDonnell, K., O’Campo, P., & Maman, S. (2001). The process of ending abuse in intimate relationships: A qualitative exploration of the Transtheoretical Model. Violence Against Women, 7(10), 1144-1163.
20.
Bursik, K. (1991). Correlates of women’s adjustment during the separation and divorce process [Special issue]. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage14(3/4), 137-162.
21.
Campbell, J. (1989). A test of two explanatory models of women’s responses to battering. Nursing Research, 38(1), 18-24.
22.
Campbell, J., Kub, J., Belknap, R. A., & Templin, T. (1997). Predictors of depression in battered women. Violence Against Women, 3(3), 271-293.
23.
Campbell, J., Miller, P., Cardwell, M., & Belknap, R. (1994). Relationship status of battered women over time. Journal of Family Violence, 9(2), 99-111.
24.
Campbell, J., Rose, L., Kub, J., & Nedd, D. (1998). Voices of strength and resistance: A contextual and longitudinal analysis of women’s responses to battering. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13(6), 743-762.
25.
Campbell, R., Sullivan, C., & Davidson, W. (1995). Women who use domestic violence shelters: Changes in depression over time. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 237-255.
26.
Carlin, R. (1998). Developing self: Women’s process in ending an abusive relationship. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto, 1998). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59(6-A), 1918.
27.
Compton, W., Michael, J., Krasavage-Hopkins, E., Schneiderman, L., & Bickman, L. (1989). Intentions for postshelter living in battered women. Journal of Community Psychology, 17, 126-128.
28.
Correia, A. (2001). Housing and battered women: A case study of domestic violence programs in Iowa. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved May 20, 2001, from http://www.vaw.umn.edu/FinalDocuments/housing.asp
29.
Cox, J., & Stoltenberg, C. (1991). Evaluation of a treatment program for battered wives. Journal of Family Violence, 6(4), 395-413.
30.
Dalto, C. (1983). Battered women: Factors influencing whether or not former shelter residents return to the abusive situation. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1983). Dissertation Abstracts International (4-B), 1277.
31.
DeGarmo, D. S., & Kitson, G. C. (1996). Identity relevance and disruption as predictors of psychological distress for widowed and divorced women. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 58(4), 983-997.
32.
Dixon, C., & Rettig, K. (1994). An examination of income adequacy for single women two years after divorce. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 22(1/2), 55-71.
33.
Dobash, R., & Dobash, R. (1979). Violence against wives: A case against the patriarchy. New York: Free Press.
34.
Dobash, R., & Dobash, R. (1988). Research as social action: The struggle for battered women. In K. Yllo & M. Bograd (Eds.). Feminist perspectives on wife abuse (pp. 51-74). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
35.
Dobash, R., & Dobash, R. (1992). Women, violence, and social change. London: Routledge.
36.
Duffy, M. (1989). Mental well-being and primary prevention practices in women heads of one-parent families. Journal of Divorce, 13(1), 45-64.
37.
Duncan, G., & Hoffman, S. (1985). A reconsideration of the economic consequences of marital dissolution. Demography, 22, 485-497.
38.
Dutton, D., & Painter, S. (1981). Traumatic bonding: The development of emotional attachments in battered women and other relationships of intermittent abuse. Victimology: An International Journal, 1(4), 139-155.
39.
Dutton, D., & Painter, S. (1993). Emotional attachments in abusive relationships: A test of traumatic bonding theory. Violence and Victims, 8(2), 105-120.
40.
Eisikovits, Z., Buchbinder, E., & Mor, M. (1998). What it was won’t be anymore: Reaching the turning point in coping with intimate violence. Affilia, 13(4), 411-434.
41.
Eldar-Avidan, D., & Haj-Yahia, M. (2000). The experience of formerly battered women with divorce: A qualitative, descriptive study. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 32(3/4), 19-40.
42.
Ellis, D. (1992). Woman abuse among separated and divorced women: The relevance of social support. In E. Viano (Ed.), Intimate violence: Interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 177-189). Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
43.
Ferraro, K., & Johnson, J. (1983). How women experience battering: The process of victimization. Social Problems, 30(3), 325-338.
44.
Frisch, M., & MacKenzie, C. (1991). A comparison of formerly and chronically battered women on cognitive and situational dimensions. Psychotherapy, 28(2), 339-344.
45.
Garvin, V., Kalter, N., & Hansell, J. (1993). Divorced women: Factors contributing to resiliency and vulnerability. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 21(1/2), 21-39.
46.
Gelles, R. (1976). Abused wives: Why do they stay? Journal of Marriage and the Family, 38, 659-668.
47.
Gerstel, N., Riessman, C., & Rosenfield, S. (1985). Explaining the symptomology of separated and divorced women and men: The role of material conditions and social networks. Social Forces, 64(1), 84-101.
48.
Goetting, A. (1999). Getting out: Life stories of women who left abusive men. New York: Columbia University Press.
49.
Gondolf, E., & Fisher, E. (1988). Battered women as survivors. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
50.
Gray, C., Koopman, E., & Hunt, J. (1991). The emotional phases of marital separation: An empirical Investigation. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61(1), 138-143.
51.
Guerin, P., Fay, L., Burden, S., & Kautto, J. (1987). The evaluation of treatment of marital conflict: A four-stage approach. New York: Basic Books.
52.
Herbert, T., Silver, R., & Ellard, J. (1991, May). Coping with an abusive relationship: I. How and why do women stay? Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 211-325.
53.
Hilbert, J., & Hilbert, H. (1984). Battered women leaving shelter: Which way do they go? A discriminant function analysis. The Journal of Applied Social Sciences, 8(2), 291-297.
54.
Hilbert, J., Kolia, R., & VanLeeuwen, D. (1997). Abused women in New Mexican shelters: Factors that influence independence on discharge. Affilia, 12(4), 391-407.
55.
Hobfoll, S., & Vaux, A. (1993). Social support: Social resources and social context. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.), Handbook of stress: Theoretical and clinical aspects (pp. 686-705). New York: Free Press.
56.
Hoff, L. (1990). Battered women as survivors. New York: Routledge.
57.
Holt, D. (1995). An exploration of the decision to leave an abusive partner. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Alabama, 1995). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56(6-A), 2417.
58.
Horton, A., & Johnson, B. (1993). Profile and strategies of women who have ended abuse. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 74(8), 481-492.
59.
Humphreys, J. (1995). The work of worrying: Battered women and their children. Scholarly Inquiry for Nursing Practice, 9(2), 127-145.
60.
Jacobson, N., Gottman, J., Gortner, E., Berns, S., & Wu Shortt, J. (1996). Psychological factors in the longitudinal course of battering: When do the couples split up? When does the abuse decrease? Violence and Victims, 11(4), 371-392.
61.
Johnson, H. (1995). Risk factors associated with non-lethal violence against women by marital partners. In C. Block & R. Block (Eds.), Questions and answers in lethal and nonlethal violence (Vol. 3). Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
62.
Johnson, I. (1992). Economic, situational, and psychological correlates of the decision-making process of battered women. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 73, 168-176.
63.
Kemp, A., Green, B. L., Hovanitz, C., & Rawlings, E. I. (1995, March). Incidence and correlates of posttraumatic stress disorder in battered women: Shelter and community samples. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10(1), 43-55.
64.
Kirkwood, C. (1993). Leaving abusive partners: From the scars of survival to the wisdom for change. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
65.
Kurz, D. (1996). Separation, divorce, and woman abuse. Violence Against Women, 2(1), 63-81.
66.
Landenburger, K. (1989). A process of entrapment in and recovery from an abusive relationship. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 10, 209-227.
67.
Lehnen, R., & Skogan, W. (1981). The National Crime Survey: Working papers, Vol. 1, current and historical perspectives. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
68.
Lerner, C. F., & Kennedy, L. T. (2000.) Stay-leave decision making in battered women: Trauma, coping and self-efficacy. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 24(2), 215-232.
69.
Lesser, B. (1990). Attachment and situational factors influencing battered women’s return to their mates following a shelter program. In K. Pottharst (Ed.), Research explorations in adult attachment (pp. 81-128). New York: Peter Lang.
70.
Lindsay, G., & Scherman, A. (1987). The impact of children and time lapse since divorce on women’s postdivorce adjustment. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 9(3), 174-183.
71.
Martin, A., Berenson, K., Griffing, S., Sage, R., Madry, L., Bingham, L., et al. (2000). The process of leaving an abusive relationship: The role of risk assessments and decision-certainty. Journal of Family Violence, 15(2), 109-122.
72.
Mechanic, M., Weaver, T., & Resick, P. (2000). Intimate partner violence and stalking behavior: Exploration of patterns and correlates in a sample of acutely battered women. Violence and Victims, 15(1), 55-72.
73.
Merritt-Gray, M., & Wuest, J. (1995). Counteracting abuse and breaking free: The process of leaving revealed through women’s voices. Health Care for Women International, 16, 399-412.
74.
Mertin, P., & Mohr, P. (2001.) A follow-up study of posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and depression in Australian victims of domestic violence. Violence and Victims, 16, 645-654.
75.
Miller, N., Smerglia, V., Gaudet, D., & Kitson, G. (1998). Stressful life events, social support, and the distress of widowed and divorced women. Journal of Family Issues, 19(2), 181-203.
76.
Mills, T. (1985). The assault on the self: Stages in coping with battering husbands. Qualitative Sociology, 8(2), 103-123.
77.
Mitchell, R., & Hodson, C. (1983). Coping with domestic violence: Social support and psychological health among battered women. American Journal of Community Psychology, 11(6), 629-654.
78.
Molina, O. (1999). The effect of divorce on African American working women. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 32(1/2), 1-15.
79.
Moss, V., Pitula, C., Campbell, J., & Halstead, L. (1997). The experience of terminating an abusive relationship from an Anglo and African American perspective: A qualitative descriptive study. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 18, 433-454.
80.
Nelson, G. (1989). Life strains, coping, and emotional wellbeing: A longitudinal study of recently separated and married women. American Journal of Community Psychology, 17(4), 459-483.
81.
NiCarthy, G. (1987). The ones who got away: Women who left abusive partners. Seattle, WA: Seal.
82.
Nurius, P., Furrey, J., & Berliner, L. (1992). Coping capacity among women with abusive partners. Violence and Victims, 7(3), 229-243.
83.
Okun, A. (1998). Battered women who leave: An exploratory model of factors involved in the separation process. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1998). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59(2-B), 882.
84.
Okun, L. (1986). Woman abuse: Facts replacing myths. New York: State University of New York Press.
85.
Orava, T., McLeod, P., & Sharpe, D. (1996). Perceptions of control, depressive symptomotology, and self-esteem of women in transition from abusive relationships. Journal of Family Violence, 11(2), 167-186.
86.
Pagelow, M. (1981). Factors affecting women’s decisions to leave violent relationships. Journal of Family Issues, 2(4), 391-414.
87.
Patzel, B. (2001.) Women’s use of resources in leaving abusive relationships: A naturalistic inquiry. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 22, 729-747.
88.
Pearlin, L. (1999). The stress process revisited: Relections on concepts and their interrelationships. In C. Aneshensel & J. Phelan (Eds.(, Handbook of the sociology of mental health (pp. 395-415). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
89.
Pearlin, L., Lieberman, M., Menaghan, E., & Mullan, J. (1981). The stress process. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22, 337-356.
90.
Peled, E., Eisikovits, Z., Enosh, G., & Winstok, Z. (2000). Choice and empowerment for battered women who stay: Toward a constructivist model. Social Work, 45(1), 9-25.
91.
Pleck, E. (1987). Domestic tyranny: The making of social policy against family violence from colonial times to the present. New York: Oxford University Press.
92.
Pledge, D. S. (1992). Marital separation/divorce: A review of individual responses to a major life stressor. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 17(3/4), 151-181.
93.
Prochaska, J., & DiClemente, C. (1984). The transtheoretical approach: Crossing traditional boundaries of change. Homewood: Dow Jones/Irwin.
94.
Prochaska, J., Norcross, J., & DiClemente, C. (1994). Changing for good. New York: William Morrow.
95.
Raphael, J. (1999). Keeping women poor: How domestic violence prevents women from leaving welfare and entering the world of work. In R. Brandwein (Ed.), Battered women, children, and welfare reform: The ties that bind (pp. 31-43). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
96.
Rhodes, N., & McKenzie, E. (1998). Why do battered women stay? Three decades of research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 3(4), 391-406.
97.
Rosen, K., & Stith, S. (1997). Surviving abusive dating relationships: Processes of leaving, healing, and moving on. In G. K. Kantor & J. L. Jasinski (Eds.), Out of the darkness: Contemporary perspectives on family violence (pp. 170-182). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
98.
Rounsaville, B. (1978). Theories in marital violence: Evidence from a study of battered women. Victimology, 3(1/2), 11-31.
99.
Rusbult, C., & Martz, J. (1995). Remaining in an abusive relationship: An investment analysis of nonvoluntary dependence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(6), 558-571.
100.
Sato, R., & Heiby, E. (1992). Correlates of depressive symptoms among battered women. Journal of Family Violence, 7(3), 229-245.
101.
Schutte, N., Malouff, J., & Doyle, J. (1988). The relationship between characteristics of the victim, persuasive techniques of the batterer, and returning to a battering relationship. Journal of Social Psychology, 128(5), 605-610.
102.
Shainess, N. (1979). Vulnerability to violence: Masochism as process. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 33, 174-189.
103.
Shapiro, A. D. (1996). Explaining psychological distress in a sample of remarried and divorced persons: The influence of economic distress. Journal of Family Issues, 17(2), 186-203.
104.
Sleutel, M. 1998. Women’s experiences of abuse: A review of qualitative research. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 19, 525-539.
105.
Snell, J., Rosenwald, R., & Robey, A. (1964). The wifebeater’s wife: A study of family interaction. Archives of General Psychiatry, 11, 107-112.
106.
Snyder, D., & Scheer, N. (1981). Predicting disposition following brief residence at a shelter for battered women. American Journal of Community Psychology, 9(5), 559-566.
107.
Statistics Canada. (2001). Family violence in Canada: A statistical profile. Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Centre for Justice. Retrieved November 3, 2002, from http://www.statcan.ca
108.
Strube, M. (1988). The decision to leave an abusive relationship: Empirical evidence and theoretical issues. Psychological Bulletin, 104(2), 236-250.
109.
Strube, M., & Barbour, L. (1983). The decision to leave an abusive relationship: Economic dependence and psychological commitment. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 45, 785-793.
110.
Strube, M., & Barbour, L. (1984). Factors related to the decision to leave an abusive relationship. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 46, 837-844.
111.
Sullivan, C., Basta, J., Tan, C., & Davidson, W. (1992). After the crisis: A needs assessment of women leaving a domestic violence shelter. Violence and Victims, 7(3), 267-274.
112.
Sullivan, C., & Bybee, D. (1999). Reducing violence using community based advocacy for women with abusive partners. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(1), 43-53.
113.
Sullivan, C., Campbell, R., Angelique, H., Eby, K., & Davidson, W. (1994). An advocacy intervention program for women with abusive partners: Six-month follow-up. American Journal of Community Psychology, 22(1), 101-122.
114.
Sullivan, C., & Davidson, W. (1991). The provision of advocacy services to women leaving abusive partners: An examination of short-term effects. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19(6), 953-960.
115.
Sullivan, C., Tan, C., Basta, J., Rumptz, M., & Davidson, W. (1992). An advocacy intervention program for women with abusive partners: Initial evaluation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20(3), 309-332.
116.
Syers-McNairy, M. (1990). Women who leave violent relationships: Getting on with life: I and II. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1990). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51(6-A), 2159.
117.
Tan, C., Basta, J., Sullivan, C., & Davidson, W. (1995). The role of social support in the lives of women exiting domestic violence shelters: An experimental study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10(4), 437-451.
118.
Thabes, V. (1997). Survey analysis of women’s long-term, postdivorce adjustment. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 27(3/4), 163-175.
119.
Thiriot, T., & Buckner, E. (1992). Multiple predictors of satisfactory post-divorce adjustment of single custodial parents. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 17(1/2), 27-48.
120.
Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000). Extent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey (Report sponsored by the National Institute of Justice). Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
121.
Tolman, R., & Rosen, D. (2001). Domestic violence in the lives of women receiving welfare. Violence Against Women, 7(2), 141-158.
122.
Truman-Schram, D., Cann, A., Calhoun, L., & Vanwallendael, L. (2000). Leaving an abusive dating relationship: An investment model comparison of women who stay versus women who leave. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19(2), 161-183.
123.
Turner, S., & Shapiro, C. (1986). Battered women: Mourning the death of a relationship. Social Work, 31, 372-376.
124.
Tutty, L. (1998, July). The importance of follow-up programs for abused women. Paper presented at Program Evaluation and Family Violence Research: An international conference at the University of New Hampshire, Durham.
125.
Tutty, L., Bidgood, B., & Rothery, M. (1993). Support groups for battered women: Research on their efficacy. Journal of Family Violence, 8(4), 325-343.
126.
Ulrich, Y. (1991). Women’s reasons for leaving abusive spouses. Health Care for Women International, 12, 465-473.
127.
Ulrich, Y. (1998). What helped most in leaving spousal abuse: Implications for Interventions. In J. Campbell (Ed.), Empowering survivors of abuse: Health care for battered women and their children. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
128.
Varvaro, E. (1991). Using a grief response assessment questionnaire in a support group to assist battered women in their recovery. Response, 13(4), 17-20.
129.
Voydanoff, P., & Kelly, R. (1984). Determinants of work related family problems among employed parents. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 46, 881-892.
130.
Walker, L. (1984). The battered woman syndrome. New York: Springer.
131.
Wheaton, B. (1999). The nature of stressors. In A. Horwitz & L. Scheid (Eds.), A handbook for the study of mental health: Social contexts, theories, and systems (pp. 176-197). New York: Cambridge University Press.
132.
Wilcox, B. (1986). Stress, coping, and the social milieu of divorced women. In S. Hobfoll (Ed.), Stress, social support, and women (pp. 115-132). New York: Hemisphere.
133.
Williams, J. (2000). Factors related to women’s stages of terminating violent intimate relationships. (Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 2000). Dissertation Abstracts International, 61(3-B), 1333.
134.
Wilson, J. 1999. Surviving well: Decision-making and resiliency of African American and Euro-American women who have successfully left loved and dangerous partners. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma, 1999). Dissertation Abstracts International, 60(5-A), 1796.
135.
Wilson, M., & Daly, M. (1993). Spousal homicide risk and estrangement. Violence and Victims, 8, 3-15.
136.
Wilson, M., Johnson, H., & Daly, M. (1995). Lethal and non-lethal violence against wives. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 37, 331-362.
137.
Wuest, J., & Merritt-Gray, M. (1999). Not going back: Sustaining the separation in the process of leaving abusive relationships. Violence Against Women, 5(2), 110-133.
138.
Young, G., & Gerson, S. (1991) New psychoanalytic perspectives on masochism and spouse abuse. Psychotherapy, 28(1), 30-38.
