It is crucial that employees and students become astute adult learners. Due to rapidly changing technology in both the workplace and instructional venues, organizations are challenged to find new and useful tools for adapting to these advances in both content and processes of work. Therefore, understanding how virtual worlds function as sites of adult learning (including enablers and barriers to successful adult learning experiences) becomes an important task for developing the construct of virtual human resource development (VHRD). In this empirical exploratory study, adult learning was conducted within the virtual world of Second Life (SL), both for its popularity and afforded opportunities for collaboration. The findings in this study indicate there are important enablers and barriers for adult learning in this virtual world that may prove useful for HRD professionals when designing learning experiences in virtual environments.
Akdere, M., & Conceicão, S. (2006). Integration of human resource development and adult education theories and practices: Implications for organizational learning. In F. M. Nafukho & H.-C. Chen (Eds.), Referred proceedings of the AHRD 2006 International Conference (pp. 295-301). Bowling Green, OH: Academy of Human Resource Development .
2.
Alfred, M.V. ( 2002). The promise of sociocultural theory. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 96, 3-13.
3.
Ardichvilli, A. ( 2008). Learning and knowledge sharing in virtual communities of practice: Motivators, barriers, and enablers. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 10, 541-554.
4.
Aurilio, S. ( 2010). Learning in the wild of a virtual world. San Diego, CA: San Diego State University.
5.
Baker, S.C. ( 2009). Using virtual worlds in education: Second Life® as an educational tool. Teaching of Psychology, 36(1), 59-64.
6.
Bennett, E.E. ( 2009). Virtual HRD: The intersection of knowledge management, culture, and intranets. Advances in Developing Human Resources , 11, 362-374.
7.
Bennett, E.E., & Bell, A.A. ( 2010). Paradox and promise in the knowledge society. In C. E. Kasworm, A. D. Rose, & J. M. Ross-Gordon (Eds.), Handbook of adult and continuing education (pp. 411-420). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
8.
Bierema, L.L., & Hill, J. ( 2005). Virtual mentoring and HRD. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 7, 556-568.
9.
Bingham, T., & Conner, M. ( 2010). The new social learning: A guide to transforming organizations through social media. San Francisco, CA: American Society for Training & Development.
10.
Birchall, D., & Giambona, G. ( 2007). SME manager development in virtual learning communities and the role of trust. Human Resource Development International , 10, 187-202.
11.
Burgess, M.L., Slate, J.R., Rojas-LeBouel, A., & LaPrairie, K. ( 2009). Teaching and learning in Second Life: Using the community of inquiry (CoI) model to support online instruction with graduate students in instructional technology. Internet and Higher Education , 13(1-2), 84-88.
12.
Chapman, D.D. ( 2008). Virtual worlds: New directions for HRD practice and research . In T. J. Chermack, J. Storberg-Walker, & C. M. Graham (Eds.), Refereed proceedings of the 2008 Academy of Human Resource Development Annual Research Conference (pp. 917-924). Bowling Green, OH: Academy of Human Resource Development .
13.
Chapman, D.D., & Stone, S.J. ( 2010). Measurement of outcomes in virtual environments. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 12(6), 665-680.
14.
Creswell, J.W., & Miller, D.L. ( 2000). Determining validity in qualitative inquiry. Theory Into Practice, 39(3), 124-130.
15.
Denzin, N.K., & Lincoln, Y.S. ( 2005). The SAGE handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed.). New York, NY: SAGE.
16.
Ellinger, A.D. ( 2004). The concept of self-directed learning and its implications for human resource development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 6, 158-177.
17.
Elliott, S. ( 2010). Virtual reality helps soldiers deal with real world burn pain. Retrieved from http://www.army.mil/-news/2010/02/04/34030-virtual-reality-helps-soldiers-deal-with-real-world-burn-pain/
18.
Fenwick, T. ( 2008). Workplace learning: Emerging trends and perspectives . New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 119, 17-26.
19.
Geertz, C. ( 1973). Thick description: Toward an interpretive theory of culture . In C. Geertz (Ed.), The interpretation of cultures: Selected essays (pp. 3-30). New York, NY: Basic Books.
20.
Gibb, S. ( 2004). Imagination, creativity, and HRD: An aesthetic perspective . Human Resource Development Review, 3(53), 53-74.
21.
Harvard Graduate School of Education. (2009 ). Augmented reality technology brings learning to life. Retrieved from http://www.gse.harvard.edu/blog/uk/2009/09/augmented-reality-technology-brings-learning-to-life.html
22.
Hedberg, J.G. ( 2006). E-learning futures? Speculations for a time yet to come . Studies in Continuing Education, 28, 171-183.
23.
Hu, P. (2009, February 18-22). Review of andragogy and transformational learning theories: Two important pieces of adult learning theory and critical evaluation as part of the foundation of the field of human resource development. In T. J. Chermack, J. Storberg-Walker, & C. M. Graham (Eds.), Refereed proceedings of the AHRD 2009 International Research Conference (pp. 3115-3143). Bowling Green, OH: Academy of Human Resource Development .
24.
Jarmon, L., Traphagan, T., & Mayrath, M. ( 2008). Understanding project-based learning in Second Life with a pedagogy, training, and assessment trio. Educational Media International, 45, 157-176.
25.
Johnson, L.F., & Levine, A.H. ( 2008). Virtual worlds: Inherently immersive, highly social learning spaces. Theory Into Practice, 47, 161-170.
26.
Johnstone, J.W.C., & Rivera, R.J. ( 1965). Volunteers for learning: A study of the educational pursuits of adults. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.
27.
Kapp, K., & O’Driscoll, T. (2010). Designing Virtual Immersive Environments. T+D, 64(4), 30-32.
28.
Knowles, M.S. ( 1968). Andragogy, not pedagogy. Adult Leadership , 16, 350-352, 386.
29.
Knowles, M.S. ( 1970). The modern practice of adult education. Andragogy versus pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
30.
Knowles, M.S. ( 1973). The adult learner: A neglected species. Houston, TX: Gulf.
31.
Knowles, M.S. ( 1989). The making of an adult educator: An autobiographical journey. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass .
32.
Knowles, M.S., Holton, E.F., III, & Swanson, R.A. ( 2005). The adult learner (6th ed.). Burlington, MA: Elsevier.
33.
Lester, P.M., & King, C.M. ( 2009). Analog vs. digital instruction and learning: Teaching within first and second life environments. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14, 457-483.
34.
Lincoln, Y.S., & Guba, E.G. ( 1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.
35.
Macpherson, A., Elliot, M., Harris, I., & Homan, G. ( 2004). E-learning: Reflections and evaluation of corporate programmes . Human Resource Development International, 7, 295-313.
36.
McCain, M.L. ( 2009). The power of technology to transform adult learning: Expanding access to adult education & workforce skills through distance learning. New York, NY: Council for Advancement of Adult Literacy. Retrieved from http://www.caalusa.org/POWER_OF_TECH.pdf
37.
McWhorter, R.R. ( 2010). Exploring the emergence of virtual human resource development . Advances in Developing Human Resources, 12(6), 623-631.
38.
McWhorter, R., Mancuso, D., & Chlup, D.T. ( 2009, April 13). Adult learning in a virtual environment. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Education Research Association, San Diego, CA.
39.
McWhorter, R.R., Mancuso, D.S., Chlup, D.T., & Demps, E.L. ( 2009). The emergence of virtual human resource development (T. J. Chermack, Ed.). Proceedings of the 2009 Academy of Human Resource Development, Washington, DC.
40.
McWhorter, R.R., Mancuso, D.S., & Hurt, A.C. ( 2008). Adult learning in a virtual environment. In T. J. Chermack, J. Storberg-Walker , & C. M. Graham (Eds.), Refereed proceedings of the 2008 Academy of Human Resource Development Annual Research Conference (pp. 1148-1152). Bowling Green, OH: Academy of Human Resource Development.
41.
Merriam, S.B. ( 2008). Adult learning theory for the twenty-first century. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 119, 93-98.
42.
Merriam, S.B. ( 2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass .
43.
Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
44.
Minocha, S., & Reeves, A.J. ( 2010). Design of learning spaces in 3D worlds: An empirical investigation of Second Life. Learning, Media, & Technology , 35(2), 111-137.
45.
Nafukho, F.M., Graham, C.M., & Muyia, H.M. ( 2010). Harnessing and optimal utilization of human capital in virtual workplace environments. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 12(6), 648-664.
46.
New Media Consortium, & EDUCAUSE. (2007 ). The Horizon Report. 2007 Edition. New Media Consortium, Retrieved May 18, 2008, from http://www.nmc.org/pdf/2007_Horizon_Report.pdf
47.
New Media Consortium. (2008). About the NMC. Retrieved from http://www.nmc.org/about
48.
Nino, T. ( 2009). Linden lab launches Second Life enterprise beta, Second Life work marketplace to come. Retrieved from http://massively.joystiq.com/2009/11/04/linden-lab-launches-second-life-enterprise-beta-second-life-wor/
49.
Nussbaum, M.C. ( 1999). Women and equality: The capabilities approach. International Labour Review, 138, 227-245.
50.
Ruona, W.E.A. ( 2005). Analyzing qualitative data. In R. A. Swanson & E. F. Holton, III (Eds.), Research in organizations: Foundations and methods of inquiry (pp. 233-264). San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.
51.
Sandlin, J. ( 2005). Andragogy and its discontents: An analysis of andragogy from three critical perspectives. PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning, 14, 25-42.
52.
Second Life. (2010). What is Second Life? Retrieved from http://secondlife.com/whatis/? sourceid=0410-sergoog-slSecondLife-wisl&gclid=CMDYh8aiwaECFQWenAoddg2uAA
53.
Spradley, J.P. ( 1980). Participant observation. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
54.
St Clair,. R. ( 2002). Andragogy revisited: Theory for the 21st century?Myths and Realities No. 19 (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 468612). Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education.
55.
Valentine, T., & Darkenwald, G. (1990). Deterrents to participation in adult education: profiles of potential learners. Adult Education Quarterly, 41(1), 29-42.
56.
Van Harmelen, M. ( 2008). Design trajectories: Four experiments in PLE implementation . Interactive Learning Environments, 16(1), 35-46.
57.
Wagner, C., & Ip, R. K. F. (2009). Action learning with Second Life: A pilot study . Journal of Information Systems Education, 20, 249-258.
58.
Warburton, S. ( 2009). Second Life in higher education: Assessing the potential for and the barriers to deploying virtual worlds in learning and teaching . British Journal of Educational Technology, 40, 414-426.
59.
White, B.A. ( 2008). Second Life: A guide to your virtual world. Indianapolis, IN: Que.
60.
Wiecha, J., Heyden, R., Sternthal, E., & Merialdi, M. ( 2010). Learning in a virtual world: Experience with using Second Life for medical education. Journal of Medical Internet Research , 12(3), 1-16.
61.
Williams, A. ( 2009). Second Life goes behind the firewall. Retrieved from http://www.readwriteweb.com/enterprise/2009/11/second-life-goes-behind-the-fi.php
62.
Workman, M. ( 2005). Virtual team culture and the amplification of team boundary permeability on performance. Human Resource Development Quarterly , 16, 435-458.
63.
Yang, B. ( 2003). Toward a holistic theory of knowledge and adult learning . Human Resource Development Review, 2(2), 106-129.
64.
Yang, B. ( 2004). Holistic learning theory and implications for human resource development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 6, 241-262.
65.
Zielke, M.A., Roome, T.C., & Krueger, A.B. ( 2009). A composite adult learning model for virtual world residents with disabilities: A case study of the Virtual Ability Second Life Island . Journal of Virtual Worlds Research, 2(1), 1-21.
