This monograph examines daily newspaper coverage of organized labor during the burst of union activity that began in the early 1930s. Three factors influenced labor reporting during this period: the dramatic rise of unions as a political, economic, and cultural force in the New Deal; trends in journalism, including the dominance of objectivity as an operating norm and the shift toward interpretive reporting; and journalists, their sources in labor leadership, and the emergence of the American Newspaper Guild. Union leaders were highly critical of the general circulation press and its coverage of labor issues. I argue that labor news was biased against unions, but that bias was not the result of a deliberate attempt to discredit unions. Despite prounion inclinations of some journalists, news values, news gathering routines, and newsroom practices shaped labor reporting in a way that emphasized organized labor’s role in repeatedly challenging and disrupting the status quo.
Associated Press v. National Labor Relations Board 301 U.S. 103 (1937).
8.
AtkinsA. (2019). “Your paper saved Seattle”: E.W. Scripps and the Star’s role in the general strike of 1919. Journalism History, 45(2), 157–175.
9.
BaileyG. L. (1984). The Terre Haute, Indiana, general strike, 1935. Indiana Magazine of History, 80(3), 193–226.
10.
BaldastyG. J. (1999). E.W. Scripps and the business of newspapers. University of Illinois Press.
11.
BarnhurstK. G.NeroneJ. (2001). The form of news: A history. Guilford Press.
12.
BealsC. (1939). The labor paper: A powerful arm of the labor movement but far too little used. American Newspaper Guild.
13.
BekkenJ. (1992). “The most vindictive and most vengeful power”: Labor confronts the Chicago newspaper trust. Journalism History, 18, 11–17.
14.
BekkenJ. (1993). The working-class press at the turn of the century. In SolomonW. S.McChesneyR. W. (Eds.), Ruthless criticism: New perspectives in U.S. communication history (pp. 151–175). University of Minnesota Press.
15.
BellD. (1954). Industrial conflict and public opinion. In KornhauserA.DubinA. R.RossA. M. (Eds.), Industrial conflict (pp. 240–256). McGraw Hill.
16.
BernsteinI. (1970). The turbulent years: A history of the American worker, 1933-1941. Houghton Mifflin.
17.
BickelK. (1930). New empires: The newspaper and the radio. J.P. Lippincott.
18.
BirdW. L.Jr. (1999). “Better living”: Advertising, media, and the new vocabulary of business leadership, 1935-1955. Northwestern University Press.
19.
BleyerW. G. (1923). Newspaper writing and editing (Rev. ed.). Houghton Mifflin.
20.
BokD. C.DunlopJ. T. (1970). Labor and the American community. Simon & Schuster.
21.
BreedW. (1955). Social control in the newsroom: A functional analysis. Social Forces, 33(4), 326–335.
22.
BrennenB. (2004). The emergence of class consciousness in the American Newspaper Guild. In HeiderD. (Ed.), Class and news (pp. 233–247). Rowman & Littlefield.
23.
Bridgeport group fights communists. (1946, December1). The New York Times, 66.
24.
Brief for American Newspaper Publishers Association as Amicus Curiae, in Associated Press v. National Labor Relations Board (1937). Reprinted in Bulletin 6677 (1937, February 5). American Newspaper Publishers Association.
25.
BrodyD. (2005). Labor embattled: History, power, rights. University of Illinois Press.
26.
BruckerH. (1937). The changing American newspaper. Columbia University Press.
27.
BrunoR. (2009). Evidence of bias in the Chicago Tribune coverage of organized labor: A quantitative study from 1991 to 2001. Labor Studies Journal, 34(3), 385–407.
28.
Buckmaster-Watson Minority in League With Beacon Journal. (1949, June). Local No. 5 Air Bag [Special Supplement].
BurnsR. K. (1942). Daily newspapers. In H. A. Millis (Research Director), How collective bargaining works: A survey of experience in leading American industries (pp. 31–117). Twentieth Century Fund.
33.
BursteinR. (2014). The fight over John Q: How labor won and lost the public in postwar America, 1947-1959 [Doctoral dissertation, CUNY Academic Works]. https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/179
34.
BurtE. V. (2011). Shocking atrocities in Colorado: Newspapers’ responses to the Ludlow Massacre. American Journalism, 28(3), 61–83.
35.
CantrilH.StrunkM. (Eds.). (1951). Public opinion, 1935-1946. Princeton University Press.
36.
CareyJ. B. (1958, September). Organized labor in politics. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 319, 52–62.
37.
CareyJ. B. (1970). The communications revolution and the professional communicator. In MunsonE. S.WarrenC. A. (Eds.), James Carey: A critical reader (pp. 128–143). University of Minnesota Press.
38.
University of Minnesota Press. CarlisleR. (1969). William Randolph Hearst’s reaction to the American Newspaper Guild: A challenge to new deal labor legislation. Labor History, 10(1), 74–99.
39.
ChomskyD. (2006). “An interested reader”: Measuring ownership control at the New York Times. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 23(1), 1–18.
40.
CIO Office of the Secretary-Treasurer Records. (1935–1960). Walter P. Reuther Library, Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs. Wayne State University.
41.
ColeG. H. (1970). Union public relations. In HardmanJ. B. S.NeufeldM. F. (Eds.), The house of labor: The internal operations of American unions (pp. 205–208). Greenwood Press. (Original work published 1951)
42.
CookF. L.TylerT. R.GoetzE. G.GordonM. T.ProtessD.LeffD. R.MolotchH. L. (1983). Media and agenda setting: Effects on the public, interest group leaders, policy makers, and policy. Public Opinion Quarterly, 47(1), 16–35.
43.
CooneyT. A. (1995). Balancing acts: American thought and culture in the 1930s. Twayne.
44.
DaleE. (1941). How to read a newspaper. Scott, Foresman.
45.
DaleyP. (1996). George Seldes: Propaganda analyst, press gadfly. American Journalism, 13(1), 5–20.
46.
Damon-MooreH.KaestleC. F. (1991). Surveying American readers. In KaestleC. F.Damon-MooreH.StedmanL. C.TinsleyK.TrollingerW. V.Jr (Eds.), Literacy in the United States: Readers and reading since 1880 (pp. 180–203). Yale University Press.
47.
DarntonR. (1990). First steps toward a history of reading. In DarntonR. (Ed.), The kiss of Lamourette: Reflections in cultural history (pp. 154–187). W.W. Norton.
48.
DaviesD. (2005). The challenges of civil rights and Joseph McCarthy. In KnowltonS. R.FreemanK. L. (Eds.), Fair and balanced: A history of journalistic objectivity (pp. 206–220). Vision Press.
49.
DaviesL. (1941, October9). A.F.L. is moving to oust Arnold. The New York Times, 15.
50.
DavisS. K., Papers, 1919–1980. Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul, MN.
51.
De CauxL. (1947, January20) Looking ahead. CIO News, 4.
52.
De Caux resigns, swim to succeed him. (1947, June30). The CIO News, 5.
53.
DineP. M. (2008). State of the unions: How labor can strengthen the middle class, improve our economy, and regain political influence. McGraw Hill.
54.
DolnickN. (1985). United Packinghouse Workers of America Oral History Project [Interviewers R. Horowitz & R. Halpern (Tape 26)]. Wisconsin Historical Society.
55.
DouglasS. U. (1986). Labor’s new voice: Unions and the mass media. Ablex.
56.
DubofskyM. (1994). The state and labor in modern America. University of North Carolina Press.
57.
EdelmanM. (1993). Contestable categories and public opinion. Political Communication, 10(3), 231–242.
58.
EmeryE. (1950). History of the American Newspaper Publishers Association. University of Minnesota Press.
59.
EmeryE.SmithH. L. (1954). The press and America. Prentice Hall.
60.
The enemy at home! (1943, May). National Maritime Union of America.
FaueE. (1991). Paths of unionization: Community, bureaucracy, and gender in the Minneapolis labor movement. In BaconA. (Ed.), Work engendered: Toward a new history of American labor (pp. 296–319). Cornell University Press.
64.
FaueE. (2002). Writing the wrongs: Eva Valesh and the rise of labor journalism. Cornell University Press.
65.
Final Proceedings of the Eighth Constitutional Convention of the Congress of Industrial Organizations. (1946). [n.p.].
66.
Fones-WolfE. (1994). Selling free enterprise: The business assault of labor and liberalism. University of Illinois Press.
67.
Fones-WolfE. (2006). Waves of opposition: Labor and the struggle for democratic radio. University of Illinois Press.
68.
Fones-WolfK.Fones-WolfE. (1995). A mighty voice for labor: The struggle to create a national daily labor newspaper, 1952-1958. Labor Studies Journal, 20(3), 42–64.
69.
FrankN. (1951). Labor and the press. Nieman Reports, 5(3), 26.
70.
FraserM. (2018). Labor journalism today: Three interviews. Labor: Studies in Working Class History, 15(1), 81–91.
71.
A free and responsible press: A general report on mass communication: Newspapers, radio, motion pictures, magazines, and books (1947). University of Chicago Press.
72.
GalensonW. (1960). The CIO challenge to the AFL: A history of the American Labor Movement, 1935-1941. Harvard University Press.
73.
GallG. (1999). Pursuing justice: Lee pressman, the new deal, and the CIO. State University of New York Press.
74.
GallupG. H. (1938). Testing public opinion. Public Opinion Quarterly, 2(1), 8–14.
75.
GallupG. H. (1972). The Gallup Poll: Public opinion 1935-1971, Vol. 1, 1935-1948. Random House.
76.
GansH. J. (1979). Deciding what’s news: A study of CBS Evening News, NBC Nightly News, Newsweek, and Time. Vintage Books.
77.
GitlinT. (1980). The whole world is watching: Mass media in the making and unmaking of the new left. University of California Press.
78.
GlendeP. M. (2012a). Trouble on the right, trouble on the left: The early history of the American Newspaper Guild. Journalism History, 38(3), 142–155.
79.
GlendeP. M. (2012b). “We made every effort to be impartial”: The complicated response of newspaper publishers to the rise of organized labor, 1933-1955. American Journalism, 29(2), 37–65.
80.
GlendeP. M. (2019a). Victor Riesel: Labor’s worst friend. Journalism History, 44(4), 241–251.
81.
GlendeP. M. (2019b). Westbrook Pegler and the rise of the syndicated columnist. American Journalism, 36(3), 322–347.
GriffithR. (1983). The selling of America: The advertising council and American politics. Business History Review, 57(3), 388–412.
84.
GuntherA. C. (1992). Biased press or biased public? Attitudes toward media coverage of social groups. Public Opinion Quarterly, 56(2), 147–167.
85.
HallinD. C. (1986). The “uncensored war”: The media and Vietnam. University of California Press.
86.
HarrisJ. H. (1982). The right to manage: The industrial relations policies of American business in the 1940s. University of Wisconsin Press.
87.
HedgesM. H. (1970). Why a labor press? In HardmanJ. B. S.NeufieldM. F. (Eds.), The house of labor: Internal operations of American unions (pp. 176–184). Greenwood Press. (Original work published 1951)
88.
HerlingJ., Papers, 1911–1991, Walter P. Reuther Library, Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs, Wayne State University. Detroit, MI.
89.
HinkleG. F. (1956, May15). Union bosses and political action. Vital Speeches of the Day, 22(15), 475.
90.
HochmanJ. (1943, April). Labor and the public. American Federationist, 20–24.
91.
HodgesW. L. (1954). Newspaper coverage of labor-management news: The reporters’ point of view. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 8(1), 90–97.
92.
HolterD. (1990). Labor Law and the road to Taft-Hartley: Wisconsin’s “Little Wagner Act,” 1935-1945. Labor Studies Journal, 15(2), 20–47.
93.
HorowitzR. (1997). Negro and white, unite and fight!” A social history of industrial unionism in meatpacking, 1930-90. University of Illinois Press.
94.
The House of Labor: The Internal Operations of American Unions. (1970). Greenwood Press. (Original work published 1951)
95.
How to read a newspaper. (1950, June) UAW-CIO Ammunition, 23–31.
96.
IckesH. L. (1939). America’s house of lords: An inquiry into the freedom of the press. Harcourt, Brace.
97.
IgoS. E. (2006). “A gold mine and a tool for democracy”: George Gallup, Elmo Roper, and the business of scientific polling, 1935-1955. Journal of the History of Behavioral Sciences, 42(2), 109–134.
98.
JohnstoneJ. W. C.SlawskiE. J.BowmanW. W. (1976). The news people: A sociological portrait of American journalists and their work. University of Illinois Press.
99.
KellyB. M. (2005). Objectivity and the trappings of professionalism, 1900-1950. In KnowltonS. R.FreemanK. L. (Eds.), Fair and balanced: A history of journalistic objectivity (pp. 149–166). Vision Press.
100.
KendallD. (2005). Framing class: Media representations of wealth and poverty in America. Rowman & Littlefield.
101.
KennedyD. M. (1999). Freedom from fear: The American People in depression and war, 1929-1945. Oxford University Press.
102.
KerstenA. E. (2006). Labor’s home front: The American Federation of Labor during World War II. New York University Press.
103.
KleilerF. M. (1953). White House intervention in labor disputes. Political Science Quarterly, 68(2), 227–240.
104.
KnightJ. S., Papers, 1921–1981. Archival Services, University Libraries, University of Akron, Akron, OH.
105.
KobreS. (1957). Press and contemporary affairs. Florida State University.
106.
KornhauserA. (1946–1947). Are public opinion polls fair to organized labor?Public Opinion Quarterly, 10(4), 484–500.
107.
KritzbergB. (1973). An unfinished chapter in White-Collar unionism: The formative years of the Chicago newspaper guild, local 71, American Newspaper Guild, AFL-CIO. Labor History, 14(3), 397–413.
108.
KrollJ. (1951, March). Labor’s political role. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 274, 118–122.
109.
KuczunS. (1970). History of the American Newspaper Guild [Doctoral dissertation]. University Microfilms.
Labor reporting: How good is it now? (1951, October20). Business Week, 36–55.
113.
LaheyE. A. (1959). The Reminiscences of Edwin A. Lahey [Interviews: D. F. Shaughnessy. Oral History Research Office Collection, Microfiche edition, 1972]. Columbia University.
114.
LambR. (1940a, July19). Catholic unionists drive on crooks in many cities. New York World-Telegram, 15.
115.
LambR. (1940b, July16). How “fifth column of criminals” Penetrates high places in American Labor Movement. New York World-Telegram, 1, 9.
116.
LambR. (1940c, July18). Labor racketeers rigidly barred from clothing unions. New York World-Telegram, 3.
117.
LawrenceR. (1942, January). Press reforms. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 219, 158–165.
118.
LeabD. J. (1970). A union of individuals: The formation of the American Newspaper Guild, 1933-1936. Columbia University Press.
119.
LeffL. (2005). Buried by the times: The Holocaust and America’s most important newspaper. Cambridge University Press.
120.
“Left of center” is label for C.I.O., organ says (1949, November20). The New York Times, 54.
121.
LevinR. (1947, July). Millions for POISON—Not a cent for wages. Machinists Monthly Journal, 256–257.
122.
LevinR. (1948, December). Daily labor paper in U.S.?Machinists Monthly Journal, 448–449, 476.
123.
LichtensteinN. (1982). Labor’s war at home: The CIO in World War II. Cambridge University Press.
124.
LichtensteinN. (2002). State of the union: A century of American labor. Princeton University Press.
125.
LinkH. C.FreibergA. D. (1942). The problem of validity vs. reliability in public opinion polls. Public Opinion Quarterly, 6(1), 87–98.
126.
LippmannW. (1997). Public opinion. The Free Press. (Original work published 1922)
127.
LipsetS. M.SchneiderW. (1983). The confidence gap: Business, labor, and government in the public mind. The Free Press.
128.
LipsitzG. (1994). Rainbow at midnight: Labor and culture in the 1940s. University of Illinois Press.
129.
LoftusJ. A. (1946, Feb. 23). Price crack laid to CIO by the AFL. The New York Times, 10.
130.
LundbergF. (1936). Imperial Hearst: A social biography. Equinox Cooperative Press.
131.
MacNeilN. (1940). Without fear or favor. Harcourt, Brace.
132.
Many union men resent forced campaign giving [Editorial]. (1956, December29). Saturday Evening Post, 6.
133.
MariW. (2018). Unionization in the American newsroom, 1930-1960. Journal of Historical Sociology, 31(3), 265–281.
134.
MartinC. R. (2004). Framed! Labor and the corporate media. Cornell University Press.
McChesneyR. W. (2003). The problem of the media: U.S. Communication Politics in the 21st century. Monthly Review Press.
138.
McGillR., Papers, 1853–1971. Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library. Emory University, Atlanta, GA.
139.
MeanyG. (1946, July). We back America. American Federationist, 6.
140.
MeyerS. (1992). “Stalin over Wisconsin”: The making and unmaking of militant unionism, 1900-1950. Rutgers University Press.
141.
MilkmanP. (1997). PM: A new deal in journalism. Rutgers University Press.
142.
MillerK. S. (1999). The voice of business: Hill & Knowlton and postwar public relations. University of North Carolina Press.
143.
MillsC. W.AndersonT. E. (1970). People in the unions. In HardmanJ. B. S.NeufieldM. F. (Eds.), The house of labor: Internal operations of American unions (pp. 48–51). Greenwood Press. (Original work published 1951)
144.
MillsC. W.ErskineH. G. (1947). What the people think. Labor and Nation, 3(2), 25–28.
145.
MillsC. W.GaudetH. (1946). What the people think. Labor and Nation, 2(1), 11–13.
146.
MillsC. W., with assistance of H. Schneider. (1948). New men of power: America’s labor leaders. Harcourt, Brace.
147.
Milwaukee County industrial union council records. (1938–1948). Wisconsin Historical Society, Milwaukee Area Research Center.
148.
MindichD. T. Z. (1998). Just the facts: How “objectivity” came to define American Journalism. New York University Press.
149.
MollenhoffC. R., Papers. Herbert Hoover Presidential Library, West Branch, IA.
MortJ. (1992). How the media “cover” labor. Dissent, 39(1), 81–85.
152.
MottF. L. (1942, January). Trends in newspaper content. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 219, 60–65.
153.
MurrayP. (1945). The CIO welcomes the consistent scrutiny of its aims and the means it uses. Labor and Nation, 1(2), 39–40.
154.
MurrayP. (1947, January13). A time of crisis. CIO News, 1.
155.
MutzD. C. (1998). Impersonal influence: How perceptions of mass collectives affect political attitudes. Cambridge University Press.
156.
NeroneJ. (1990). The problem of teaching journalism history. Journalism Educator, 45(3), 16–24.
157.
NeroneJ. (2015). The media and public life: A history. Polity.
158.
NissensonM. (2007). The lady upstairs: Dorothy Schiff and the New York Post. St. Martin’s Press.
159.
NordD. P. (1988). A plea forJournalism History. Journalism History, 15(10), 8–15.
160.
NordD. P. (2001a). The business values of American newspapers. In NordD. P. (Ed.), Commu-nities of journalism: A history of American newspapers and their readers (pp. 133–151). University of Illinois Press.
161.
NordD. P. (2001b). Tocqueville, Garrison, and the perfection of journalism. In NordD. P. (Ed.), communities of journalism: A history of American newspapers and their readers (pp. 92–107). University of Illinois Press.
162.
NovikM. S. (1970). The unions, radio, and the community. In HardmanJ. B. S.NeufieldM. F. (Eds.), The house of labor: Internal operations of American unions (pp. 327–332). Greenwood Press. (Original work published 1951)
163.
OshinskyD. M. (1974). Labor’s cold war: The CIO and the communists. In GriffithR.TheoharisA. (Eds.), The specter: Original essays on the cold war and the origins of McCarthyism (pp. 116–151). Franklin Watts.
164.
Paper Backs Political Role. (1944, May22). CIO political action committee clip sheet. W. T. Evjue Papers.
165.
ParentiM. (1993). Inventing reality: The politics of the mass media (2nd ed.). St. Martin’s Press.
166.
ParkD. J.WrightL. M. (2007). Giving labor the business? Changes in business and labor reporting from 1980 to 2000. Labor Studies Journal, 32(1), 60–81.
167.
ParkR. E. (1940). Introduction to H. M. Hughes. In HughesH. M. (Ed.), News and the human interest story (pp. xi–xxiii). University of Chicago Press.
168.
PatersonT. G. (1979). On every front: The making of the cold war. W.W. Norton.
169.
PhelpsC. (2018). Heywood Broun, Benjamin Stolberg, and the Politics of American Labor Journalism in the 1920s and 1930s. Labor: Studies in Working-Class History, 15(1), 25–51.
170.
PilatO. (1963). Pegler: Angry man of the press. Greenwood Press.
171.
PioreN. (1970). Reading matter for 15 million unionists. In HardmanJ. B. S.NeufieldM. F. (Eds.), The house of labor: Internal operations of American unions (pp. 196–204). Greenwood Press. (Original work published 1951)
PomperG. (1959–1960). The public relations of organized labor. Public Opinion Quarterly, 23(4), 483–494.
174.
PorterR. E. (1947, December). Industry’s slip is showing. Machinist Monthly Journal, 446.
175.
PotterW. J. (2014). A critical analysis of cultivation theory. Journal of Communication, 64(6), 1015–1036.
176.
Proceedings of the First Constitutional Convention of the United Packinghouse Workers of America (1943). [n.p.].
177.
PuetteW. J. (1992). Through jaundiced eyes: How the media view organized labor. ILR Press.
178.
Putting on the squeeze [Cartoon]. (1947, January20). CIO News, 4.
179.
RachleffP. (1996). Organizing “wall to wall”: The independent union of all workers, 1933-1937. In LyndS. (Ed.), We are all leaders: The alternative unionism of the early 1930s (pp. 51–71). University of Illinois Press.
180.
RaskinA. H. (1981). Newspaper reporting of trade unionism. In SternJ. L.DennisB. D. (Eds.), Trade unionism in the United States: A symposium in honor of Jack Barbash (pp. 225–240). Industrial Relations Research Institute.
181.
Report of Proceedings of the Sixty-Fifth Convention of the American Federation of Labor. (1946). [n.p.].
182.
Report of Proceedings of the Sixty-Second Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor. (1942). [n.p.].
183.
Reuther victory hailed. (1946, April1). The New York Times, 16.
SalcettiM. (1992). Competing for control of newsworkers: Definitional battles between the Newspaper Guild and the American Newspaper Publishers Association, 1937-1938 [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Iowa.
194.
SchillerD. (1981). Objectivity and the news: The public and the rise of commercial journalism. University of Pennsylvania Press.
195.
SchmidtD. E. (1988). Public support for labor unions: The influence of public opinion of labor union effectiveness [Doctoral dissertation]. Washington University.
196.
SchneirovR. (1998). Labor and urban politics: Class conflict and the origins of modern liberalism in Chicago, 1864-97. University of Illinois Press.
197.
SchudsonM. (1978). Discovering the news: A social history of American newspapers. Basic Books.
198.
SchudsonM. (1997). Toward a troubleshooting manual for journalism history. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 73(3), 463–476.
199.
ScottD. B. (2009). Labor’s new deal for journalism—The Newspaper Guild in the 1930s (UMI Dissertation 3392466) [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign.
200.
SeidmanJ. (1941). Trade union proposals and labor’s public relations. Public Opinion Quarterly, 5(2), 283–287.
201.
SeldesG. (1938). Lords of the press. Julian Messner.
SerrinW. (1992). Labor and the mainstream press: The vanishing labor beat. In PizzigatiS.SoloweyF. J. (Eds.), The new labor press: Journalism for a changing union movement (pp. 9–18). ILR Press.
204.
ShoemakerP. J.ReeseS. D. (1996). Mediating the message: Theories of influence of mass media content (2nd ed.). Longman.
205.
Shop paper handbook (ca. 1944). (Publication Number 32). International Union, United Automobile, Aircraft and Agricultural Implement Workers of America.
206.
SinclairU. (1920). The brass check: A study of American journalism. Upton Sinclair.
207.
StammM. (2011). Sound business: Newspaper, Radio, and the politics of new media. University of Pennsylvania Press.
208.
StarkL. (1942, January). The press and labor news. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 219, 107–113.
209.
StarkL. (1952). Louis Stark’s own story: Foremost labor reporter tells how he started making labor news. Nieman Reports, 6(1), 3–5.
210.
The statistical history of the United States from colonial times to present. (1965). Fairfield. Washingotn, DC:United States Bureau of the Census.
211.
SteelR. (1980). Walter Lippmann and the American century. Little, Brown.
212.
StewartK. (1943). News is what we make it: A running story of the working press. Houghton Mifflin.
213.
StolbergB. (1950). The Reminiscences of Benjamin Stolberg [Interviewers: A. Nevin & O. Bombard. Oral History Collection (Part 3, No. 194)]. Columbia University. Microfiche edition (1976). Microfilming Corporation of America.
SussmannL. A. (1945). Labor in the radio news: An analysis of content. Journalism Quarterly, 22(3), 207–214.
216.
TaftP. (1964). Organized labor in American history. Harper & Row.
217.
TasiniJ. (1990). Lost in the margins: Labor and the media. Extra!, 3(7), 2–10.
218.
Textile Workers Union of America Records, 1915–1994, Wisconsin Historical Society. Madison, WI.
219.
TobinD. J. (1946, July). Green ignores critical columnists. International Teamster, 13.
220.
TomlinsC. L. (1979). AFL unions in the 1930s: Their performance in historical perspective. Journal of American History, 65(4), 1021–1042.
221.
TracyJ. F. (2007). A historical case study of alternative news media and labor activism: The Dubuque leader, 1935-1939. Journalism Communication Monographs, 8(4), 269–343.
222.
TuchmanG. (1972). Objectivity as strategic ritual: An examination of newsmen’s notions of objectivity. American Journal of Sociology, 77(4), 666–679.
223.
TuchmanG. (1978). Making news: A study in the construction of reality. The Free Press.
224.
Unions in the Soviet. (1946, March25). CIO News, 6.
225.
United Packinghouse, Food, and Allied Workers Records, 1937–1968. Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison, WI.
226.
United Rubber Workers, Local 5, 1939–1987. Archival Services, University Libraries, University of Akron, Akron, OH.
227.
VillardO. G. (1944). The disappearing daily: Chapters in American Newspaper evolution. Alfred A. Knopf.
228.
VosT. P. (2018). Functionalist explanations in media histories: A historiographical essay. American Journalism, 35(4), 490–503.
229.
WardH. W. (1951). Labor and management. Nieman Reports, 5(3), 27.
230.
WardS. J. A. (2004). The invention of journalism ethics: The path of objectivity and beyond. McGill-Queen’s University Press.
WilsonR. L., Papers, Herbert Hoover Presidential Library, West Branch, IA.
235.
WisehartM. K. (1921). The Pittsburgh newspapers and the strike. In Public opinion and the steel strike: Supplementary reports to the investigators to the commission of inquiry, the Interworld church movement (pp. 81–162). Harcourt, Brace.
236.
WitwerD. (2003). The scandal of George Scalise: A case study in the rise of labor racketeering in the 1930s. Journal of Social History, 36(4), 917–940.
237.
WitwerD. (2005). Westbrook Pegler and the anti-union movement. Journal of American History, 92(2), 527–552.
238.
WitwerD. (2009). Shadow of the racketeer: Scandal in organized labor. University of Illinois Press.
239.
WitwerD. (2013). The heyday of the labor beat. Labor: Studies in Working Class History of the Americas, 10(2), 9–29.
240.
ZallerJ. R. (1992). The nature and origins of mass opinion. Cambridge University Press.
241.
ZiegerR. H. (1995). The CIO: 1935-1955. University of North Carolina Press.
242.
ZiegerR. H. (2007). For jobs and freedom: Race and labor in America since 1865. University of Kentucky Press.
243.
ZiegerR. H.GallG. (2002). American workers, American union (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press.
