Multiple-station, or group, ownership is a long established characteristic of broadcasting in the United States. It exists whenever a single organization owns more than one station or one medium. Through the efficiencies of operation of multiple outlets, or economies of scale, group media companies usually enjoy financial benefits that are not available to single medium operators. Thus, a long-term trend toward consolidation has prevailed throughout the history of the radio broadcasting industry. Television owners quickly adopted the practice, which has expanded steadily, as regulations have permitted ever since. The three forms of multiple ownership — Group ownership, Duopoly ownership, and Cross-media ownership are analyzed in this study. Particularly, this study provides (1) a statistical-historical account of the development of multiple-station ownership in the TV industry from 1940 to 2005; and (2) a historical account and analysis of the government's regulatory actions on media ownership during the same period. This study explores thus, the ownership consolidation and industry regulation that continue to be significant issues for the media industries with on-going implications.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AlbarranA. (1989). The Federal Communications Commission's multiple ownership rules: Implications for program diversity and the public interest. Arizona Communication Association Journal, 18:15–24.
2.
BagdikianB. (1997). The media monopoly (5th ed.). Boston: Beacon Press.
3.
BagdikianB. (2000). The media monopoly (6th ed.). Boston: Beacon Press.
4.
BarnouwE. (1968). The golden web: a history of broadcasting in the United States.Vol. II. New York: Oxford University Press.
5.
BatesB. (1988). The impact of deregulation on television station prices. Journal of Media Economics, 1:5–22.
6.
BatesB. (1993). Concentration in local television markets. Journal of Media Economics, 6:3–22.
Bricker lowers the boom on CBS, NBC ‘domination.’ (1956, April 30). Broadcasting-Telecasting, p. 27.
9.
Broadcasting yearbook(s)/broadcasting & cable yearbook(s). (1950–2002). Washington, DC: Broadcast Publications, Inc., and New York: Cahners Business Information.
10.
BushC. (2002). On the substitutability of local newspaper, radio, and television advertising in local business sales.Washington, DC: FCC [http://fcc.gov/ownership/studies.html].
11.
CompaineB. (Ed.). (1982). Who owns the media? Concentration of ownership in the mass communication industry.White Plains, NY: Knowledge Industry Publications.
12.
CompaineB.GomeryD. (2000). Who owns the media? (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
13.
Deregulation cast in a positive light. (2002, October 7). Electronic Media, p. 4.
14.
DoyleP. K. (1998). Television networks. In BlanchardM. (Ed.), History of the mass media in the United States.Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers.
15.
Duopolies: the pair necessities. (2002, January 21). Broadcasting & Cable, pp. 58–61.
16.
Duopoly rule ‘arbitrary,’ says fed appeals court. (2002, April 8). Electronic Media, p. 35.
17.
Federal Communications Commission.Amendment of Sec. 3.606 of the Commission's Rules and Regulations, Docket Nos. 8736 and 8975. 17 F.R. 3905 (1952).
18.
FCC.Amendment of Multiple Ownership Rules. 9 R.R. 1563 (1953).
19.
FCC.Amendment of the Commission's Rules Relating to Multiple Ownership of AM, FM, and Television Broadcasting Stations, Report and Order, 100 FCC 2d 17 (1984).
20.
FCC.Applications for Voluntary Assignments or Transfers of Control. 27 F.R. 2689 (1962).
21.
FCC.Cross-Ownership of Broadcast Stations and Newspapers (MM Docket No. 01-235), Newspaper/Radio Cross-Ownership Waiver Policy (MM Docket No. 96–197), Order and Notice of Proposed Rule Making. 16 FCC Rcd 17283 (2001).
22.
FCC. (2003, June 2). FCC Sets Limits on Media Concentration (press release).
23.
FCC.Final Order [on TV duopolies]. 64 F.R. 50647 (1999), 47 C.F.R. Sec. 73.3555 (b).
FCC.Local TV Ownership Report and Order. 14 FCC Rcd at 12930-31 (1999).
26.
FCC. (2002). Media Ownership Policy Reexamination. Downloaded from http://fcc.gov/ownership, pp. 1–2.
27.
FCC.Multiple Ownership of AM, FM and Television Broadcast Stations. 48 F.R. 49838 (1983).
28.
FCC. (1985–1986). Multiple Ownership of AM, FM and Television Broadcasting Stations, Memorandum Opinion and Order, 100 FCC 2d 74 (1985). See also, 47 C.F.R. 2d 73.3555 (1986).
29.
FCC.Multiple Ownership of Standard, FM and Television Broadcast Stations, 35 F.R. 4284 (1971); 2 R.R. 1551 (1971).
FCC.Order 84-A (1943); FCC Order 84-B. (1944). [These were the Commission's original “duopoly” rules.].
34.
FCC. (2003). Report and order and notice of proposed rulemaking. Dockets 02-277; 01–235; 01-317; 00-244; 03-130. FCC 03-127.
35.
FCC. (1941). Report on chain broadcasting.Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
36.
FCC.Rules and Policies Concerning Multiple Ownership of Radio Broadcast Stations in Local Markets. MM Docket No. 01-317; Definition of Radio Markets, 16 FCC Rcd 19861 (2001).
FratrickM., (Ed.) (2001). BIA/fn's State of the Television Industry, 2001: Ownership Report: What Is Owned by Whom and Where?Chantilly, VA: BIA Financial Network.
44.
GelmanM. J. (1963). The groups. Television.XX:65.
45.
HeadS. (1956). Broadcasting in America.Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co.
46.
HeadS. (1972). Broadcasting in America (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co.
47.
HigginsJ.McClellandS. (2002, February 25). Everything's in play. Broadcasting and Cable. pp. 18–23.
48.
HowardH. (1983). An update on TV ownership patterns. Journalism Quarterly, 60: 395–400.
49.
HowardH. (1974). Cross-media ownership of newspapers and TV stations. Journalism Quarterly, 51:717.
50.
HowardH. (1985). Group and cross-media ownership of television stations: 1985.Washington, DC: National Association of Broadcasters.
51.
HowardH. (1990). Group and cross-media ownership of television stations: 1990.Washington, DC: National Association of Broadcasters.
52.
HowardH. (1989). Group and cross-media ownership of TV stations: A 1989 update. Journalism Quarterly, 66:785–792.
53.
HowardH. (1973). Multiple Ownership in Television Broadcasting. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Ohio University.
54.
HowardH. (1979). Multiple Ownership in Television Broadcasting.New York: Arno Press.
55.
HowardH. (1976). The contemporary status of television group ownership. Journalism Quarterly, 53:399–405.
56.
HowardH. (1998). The 1996 telecommunications act and TV ownership: 1 year later. Journal of Media Economics, 11:21–32.
57.
HowardH. (1980). Television Station Group Ownership. Washington, DC: National Association of Broadcasters.
58.
HowardH. (1995). TV station group and cross-media ownership: A 1995 update. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 72:390–401.
59.
KahnF. (1968). Documents of American Broadcasting (rev. ed.). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
60.
LevyJ.Ford-LiveneM.LevineA. (2002). Broadcast television: Survivor in a sea of competition.Washington, DC: FCC [http://fcc.gov/ownership/studies.html].
61.
LichtyL.ToppingM. (1975). American broadcasting: A source book on the history of radio and television.New York: Hastings House.
62.
LitmanB. (1993). Role of TV networks. In AlexanderA.OwersJ.CarvethR. (Eds.), Media economics: Theory and practice (pp. 225–245). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
63.
McCombsM.ShawD. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, XXXVI:176–187.
64.
McConnellC. (1997, January 27). Consolidation yea or nay. Broadcasting & Cable, p. 4.
65.
Massive reg review launched. (2002, September 16). Broadcasting & Cable, p. 10.
66.
Multiple ownership. (1959, February 9). Broadcasting, p. 5.
67.
National Broadcasting Co., Inc., et al. v. United States et al. 319 U.S. 190 (1943).
68.
Nielsen Media Research local universe estimates (for 2002–2003). (2002, October). New York: Nielsen Media Research [http://www.nielsenmedia.com].
69.
PepperR. (1975). The pre-freeze television stations. In LichtyL.ToppingM.American Broadcasting, A source book on the history of radio and television.New York: Hastings House.
70.
PicardR. (1989). Media economics, concepts and issues.Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
71.
PritchardD. (2002). Viewpoint diversity in cross-owned newspapers and televisionstations: A study of news coverage of the 2000 presidential campaign.Washington, DC: FCC [http://fcc.gov/ownership/studies.html].
72.
RobertsS.FrennetteJ.StearnsD. (2002). A comparison of media outlets and owners for ten selected markets: 1960, 1980, 2000.Washington, DC: FCC [http://fcc.gov/ownership/studies.html].
SeverinW.TankardJ. (1979). Communication Theories.New York: Hastings House.
75.
SingletaryM. (1994). Mass Communication Research.New York: Longman.
76.
SpavinsT.DennisonL.FrennetteJ.RobertsS. (2002). The Measurement of Local Television News and Public Affairs Programs. Washington, DC: FCC [http://fcc.gov/ownership/studies.html].
