Understanding Graduate Student Parents: Influence of Parental Status,Gender,and Major on Graduate Students’ Motivation,Stress,and Satisfaction

Abstract

Graduate student parents are a unique subpopulation in higher education that accounts for a large proportion of graduate students. While student parents struggle to balance multiple roles, female students in STEM fields may face more significant barriers in balancing family and academic responsibilities compared to male graduate student parents or female students in non-STEM fields. Despite the urgent need to support this special population, little attention has been paid to how parental status, major, and gender affect graduate students. In this quantitative study of 545 graduate students, we examined the influence of parental status, major, and gender on motivation, stress, and satisfaction. A series of factorial ANOVAs found significant differences in motivation and mental health between graduate student parents and non-parents. Our findings highlight the importance of providing adequate resources to graduate students according to their status.

Keywords

graduate student parents gender major motivation stress satisfaction

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Alfonso

V. C.

Allison

D. B.

Rader

D. E.

Gorman

B. S.

(1996). The extended satisfaction with life scale: Development and psychometric properties. Social Indicators Research, 38(3), 275–301. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00292049

Andreou

Alexopoulos

E. C.

Lionis

Varvogli

Gnardellis

Chrousos

G. P.

Darviri

(2011). Perceived stress scale: Reliability and validity study in greece. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8(8), 3287–3298. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8083287

Asselin

(2008). Balancing personal and educational priorities: An alternative perspective on the anthropological family. Anthropology News, 49(6), 17–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/an.2008.49.6.17

Bailey

T. H.

Phillips

L. J.

(2016). The influence of motivation and adaptation on students’ subjective well-being, meaning in life and academic performance. Higher Education Research & Development, 35(2), 201–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2015.1087474

Baum

Payea

(2013). Education pays 2013. The College Board.

Brown

Watson

(2010). Understanding the experiences of female doctoral students. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 34(3), 385–404. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2010.484056

Brown

R. L.

Amankwaa

A. A.

(2007). College females as mothers: Balancing the roles of student and motherhood. ABNF Journal, 18(1), 25–29. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18402354

Brown

Nichols

T. R.

(2013). Pregnant and parenting students on campus: Policy and program implications for a growing population. Educational Policy, 27(3), 499–530. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904812453995

Brus

C. P.

(2006). Seeking balance in graduate school: A realistic expectation or a dangerous dilemma? New Directions for Student Services, 2006(115), 31–45. https://doi.org/10.1002/ss.214

10.

Cech

E. A.

Blair-Loy

(2019). The changing career trajectories of new parents in STEM. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(10), 4182–4187. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1810862116

11.

Cho

S. H.

Roy

R. N.

Dayne

(2021). Student–parents’ mental health: Factors affecting anxiety and depression. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 49(3), 254–269. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcsr.12391

12.

Cohen

Kamarck

Mermelstein

(1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404

13.

Deci

E. L.

Ryan

R. M.

(1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Plenum.

14.

Dette-Hagenmeyer

D. E.

Erzinger

A. B.

Reichle

(2014). The changing role of the father in the family. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 11(2), 129–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2014.883313

15.

Diener

E. D.

Emmons

R. A.

Larsen

R. J.

Griffin

(1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13

16.

Dillon

P. J.

(2012). Unbalanced: An autoethnography of fatherhood in academe. Journal of Family Communication, 12(4), 284–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/15267431.2012.686945

17.

Dolson

J. M.

Deemer

E. D.

(in press). The relationship between perceived discrimination and school/work–family conflict among graduate student-parents. Journal of Career Development, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845320916245

18.

Douglas-Hall

Chau

M. M.

(2007). Parents’ low education leads to low income, despite full-time employment. National Center for Children in Poverty, Columbia University. http://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_786.html.

19.

Duffy

(2021). How fathers can avoid pitfalls of shifting parenting roles, according to a therapist. CNN Health. https://www.cnn.com/2021/09/29/health/fathers-changing-role-parenting-wellness/index.html

20.

Estes

D. K.

(2011). Managing the student-parent dilemma: Mothers and fathers in higher education. Symbolic Interaction, 34(2), 198–219. https://doi.org/10.1525/si.2011.34.2.198

21.

Grady

R. K.

La Touche

Oslawski-Lopez

Powers

Simacek

(2014). Betwixt and between: The social position and stress experiences of graduate students. Teaching Sociology, 42(1), 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092055X13502182

22.

Haar

J. M.

Russo

Suñe

Ollier-Malaterre

(2014). Outcomes of work-life balance on job satisfaction, life satisfaction and mental health: A study across seven cultures. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 85(3), 361–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2014.08.010

23.

Hegarty

(2011). Adult learners as graduate students: Underlying motivation in completing graduate programs. The Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 59(3), 146–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/07377363.2011.614883

24.

Hyun

J. K.

Quinn

B. C.

Madon

Lustig

(2006). Graduate student mental health: Needs assessment and utilization of counseling services. Journal of College Student Development, 47(3), 247–266. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2006.0030

25.

Kaler

L. S.

Fulton

L. N.

Vang

Stebleton

M. J.

(2020). “You should be home snuggling your baby.” scholar-mothers navigating maternal microaggressions in the academy. In Oliha-Donaldson

(Ed.), Confronting critical equity and inclusion incidents on campus: Lessons learned and emerging practices (pp. 59–78). Routledge.

26.

Kaler

L. S.

Stebleton

M. J.

(2019). Graduate student mental health: Examining an overlooked concern. Journal of Student Affair, 2020, 101–110.

27.

Kasworm

C. E.

Polson

C. J.

Fishback

S. J.

(2002). Responding to adult learners in higher education. Professional practices in adult education and human resource development series. ERIC.

28.

Kim

(2020). Workplace flexibility and parent-child interactions among working parents in the U.S. Social Indicators Research, 151, 427–469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-018-2032-y

29.

Kmec

(2013). Why academic STEM mothers feel they have to work harder than others on the job. International Journal of Gender, Science, & Technology, 5(2), 80–101.

30.

Kreischer

(2017). Parents enrolled in graduate programs and their experiences with faculty (Publication No.10270532) [Doctoral dissertation, IOWA State University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

31.

Kulp

A. M.

(2020). Parenting on the path to the professoriate: A focus on graduate student mothers. Research in Higher Education, 61(3), 408–429. http://dx.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-019-09561-z

32.

Lee

E.-H.

(2012). Review of the psychometric evidence of the perceived stress scale. Asian Nursing Research, 6(4), 121–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anr.2012.08.004

33.

Levecque

Anseel

De Beuckelaer

Van der Heyden

Gisle

(2017). Work organization and mental health problems in PhD students. Research Policy, 46(4), 868–879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2017.02.008

34.

Lister

P. G.

(2003). It’s like you can’t be a whole person, a mother who studies”. lifelong learning: Mature women students with caring commitments in social work education. Social Work Education, 22(2), 125–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/0261547022000058189

35.

Litalien

Guay

(2015). Dropout intentions in PhD studies: A comprehensive model based on interpersonal relationships and motivational resources. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 218–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.004

36.

Little

R. J.

(1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83(404), 1198–1202. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1988.10478722

37.

Lynch

K. D.

(2008). Gender roles and the American academe: A case study of graduate student mothers. Gender and Education, 20(6), 585–605. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250802213099

38.

Lynn

C. D.

(2008). Parent seeking PhD: The practicality and pitfalls of staying local. Anthropology News, 49(6), 16. https://doi.org/10.1111/an.2008.49.6.16

39.

Lyonette

(2015). Part-time work, work–life balance and gender equality. Journal of Social Welfare and Family Law, 37(3), 321–333. https://doi.org/10.1080/09649069.2015.1081225

40.

Marquez

(2020). The graduate student experience: The parents’ perspective (Publication No. 28022805) [Doctoral dissertation, Alliant International University Sacramento]. ProQuest Dissertation Publishing.

41.

McCollum

D. L.

Kajs

L. T.

(2007). Applying goal orientation theory in an exploration of student motivations in the domain of educational leadership. Educational Research Quarterly, 31(1), 45–59.

42.

Moreau

M. P.

Kerner

(2015). Care in academia: An exploration of student parents’ experiences. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 36(2), 215–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2013.814533

43.

National Center for Education Statistics (2010). Profile of graduate and first-professional students: Trends from selected years, 1995–96 to 2007–08 (NCES 2011–219). Author.

44.

Nowell

(2017). The influence of motivational orientation on the satisfaction of university students. Teaching in Higher Education, 22(7), 855–866. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2017.1319811

45.

Offstein

E. H.

Larson

M. B.

Mcneill

A. L.

Mwale

H. M.

(2004). Are we doing enough for today’s graduate student? International Journal of Educational Management, 18(7), 396–407. https://doi.org/10.1108/09513540410563103

46.

Sallee

M. W.

(2015). Adding academics to the work/family puzzle: Graduate student parents in higher education and student affairs. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 52(4), 401–413. https://doi.org/10.1080/19496591.2015.1083438

47.

Shoukat

Ilyas

Azam

A. H.

(2013). Impact of parents’ education on children’s academic performance. Secondary Education Journal, 2(1), 53–59.

48.

Sieber

S. D.

(1974). Toward a theory of role accumulation. American Sociological Review, 39(4), 567–578. https://doi.org/10.2307/2094422

49.

Smith

R. L.

Maroney

Nelson

K. W.

Abel

A. L.

Abel

H. S.

(2006). Doctoral programs: Changing high rates of attrition. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, 45(1), 17–31. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1939.2006.tb00002.x

50.

Sogunro

O. A.

(2015). Motivating factors for adult learners in higher education. International Journal of Higher Education, 4(1), 22–37. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v4n1p22

51.

Springer

K. W.

Parker

B. K.

Leviten-Reid

(2009). Making space for graduate student parents: Practice and politics. Journal of Family Issues, 30(4), 435–457. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X08329293

52.

The George Washington University (2021). 10 tips for balancing work, school, and family . https://healthcaremba.gwu.edu/blog/10-tips-for-balancing-parenting-work-and-school/

53.

Theisen

M. R.

McGeorge

C. R.

Walsdorf

A. A.

(2018). Graduate student parents’ perceptions of resources to support degree completion: Implications for family therapy programs. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 30(1), 46–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/08952833.2017.1382650

54.

Thomas

T. J.

(2014). Daddy, Can We Play Beatles Rock Band? The Lived Experiences of a Married Student with Children in a Cohort-Based Education Doctoral Program (Publication No. 3617946) [Doctoral Dissertation, Indiana State University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

55.

Tiedje

L. B.

Wortman

C. B.

Downey

Emmons

Biernat

Lang

(1990). Women with multiple roles: Role-compatibility perceptions. Satisfaction, and Mental Health. Journal of Marriage and Family, 52(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.2307/352838

56.

Trussell

D. E.

(2015). Pinstripes and breast pumps: Navigating the tenure-motherhood-track. Leisure Sciences, 37(2), 160–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2014.980590

57.

Vallerand

R. J.

Blssonnette

(1992). Intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivational styles as predictors of behavior: A prospective study. Journal of Personality, 60(3), 599–620. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1992.tb00922.x

58.

Vallerand

R. J.

Pelletier

L. G.

Blais

M. R.

Brière

N. M.

Senécal

C. B.

Vallières

ÉF

(1992). The academic motivation scale: A measure of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation in education. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52(4), 1003–1017. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164492052004025

59.

Vallerand

R. J.

Pelletier

L. G.

Blais

M. R.

Brière

N. M.

Senécal

C. B.

Vallières

ÉF

(1993). Academic motivation scale (ams-c 28) college (cegep) version. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 52(53), 1992–1993.

60.

Vansteenkiste

Simons

Lens

Soenens

Matos

(2005). Examining the motivational impact of intrinsic versus extrinsic goal framing and autonomy-supportive versus internally controlling communication style on early adolescents’ academic achievement. Child Development, 76(2), 483–501. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00858.x

61.

Ward

Wolf-Wendel

(2004). Academic motherhood: Managing complex roles in research universities. The Review of Higher Education: Journal of the Association for the Study of Higher Education, 27(2), 233–257. https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.2003.0079

62.

Webber

Dismore

(2021). Mothers and higher education: Balancing time, study and space. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 45(6), 803–817. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2020.1820458

63.

Wentzel

K. R.

Miele

D. B.

(2009). Handbook of motivation at school. Routledge.

64.

Wigfield

Wentzel

K. R.

(2007). Introduction to motivation at school: Interventions that work. Educational Psychologist, 42(4), 191–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520701621038

65.

Wolf-Wendel

Ward

(2006). Academic life and motherhood: Variations by institutional type. Higher Education, 52(3), 487–521. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-005-0364-4

66.

Wolf-Wendel

Ward

(2015). Academic mothers: Exploring disciplinary perspectives. Innovative Higher Education, 40(1), 19–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-014-9293-4

67.

Yoo, H. J., & Marshall, D. T. (in press). Examining the relationship between motivation, stress, and satisfaction among graduate students. Journal of Further and Higher Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2021.1962518