TRANSFER OF BODIES TO THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH AFTER THE 1832 ANATOMY ACT

1For example, according to the notes written in the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh’s Manuscript Catalogue associated with an articulated skeleton of a woman who died shortly after a Caesarean operation had been performed on her for osteomalacia of pregnancy by John and Charles Bell in 1800: “A skeleton of great value; in procuring the skeleton I [i.e. Charles Bell] lost myself for two hours and found myself at 2 o’clock in the morning in the court before Pennycuick [sic] House.” See: Kaufman MH and Jaffe SM. An early Caesarean operation (1800) performed by John and Charles Bell. J R Coll Surg Edinb 1994; 39:69-75.

2While the Royal Commissioners in 1826 initially recommended this, the views of Dr Davidson, who gave evidence to them on I5 May I827, makes the position absolutely clear. He stated as follows:‘Practical Anatomy -. . . it is most important, if not quite essential to the proper acquisition of medical knowledge, as a minute acquaintance with the structure of the body, and of the relative position of parts, can be obtained only by dissection. Minute Anatomy is, in truth, the basis of Medicine and Surgery, as the structure and composition of the organs which perform the functions of the healthy body must be known, before we can ascertain the changes which take place in Disease . . . no Surgeon should presume to use the knife upon the living and sentient body, who has not acquired confidence and skill by frequent operations on the dead subject . . . the Students must be allowed to get Dissection where they best can; and their proficiency might be ascertained ...' See:Anon. Evidence, Oral and Documentary, Taken and Received By The Commissioners Appointed by His Majesty George IV. July 23d, 1826;And Re-appointed by His Majesty William IV., October 12th 1830; For Visiting The Universities of Scotland. Volume 1. University of Edinburgh. Presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of His Majesty. London:W Clowes &Sons; 1837; 508.

3According to Lonsdale, writing of Dr Knox ‘If the ordinary price was 101., Knox in need would give 151., and on one occasion actually paid 25 guineas rather than see his class disappointed . . . in one session he lost the almost incredible sum of 7001. or 8001. by “subjects” alone, - a loss vastly surpassing some anatomical lecturers “entire gains.” See: Lonsdale H. A Sketch of the Life and Writings of Robert Knox the Anatomist. By His Pupil and Colleague. London: Macmillan &Co; 1870; 92.

4 Roughead W. Burke and Hare. Edinburgh:William Hodge &Co. Ltd; 1921. Kaufman MH. Another look at Burke and Hare: the last day of Mary Paterson - a medical cover up? Proc R Coll Phys Edinb 1997; 27:78-88.

5Anon. The Statutes at Large from the twelfth year of the reign of King George the Second to the thirtieth year of the reign of King George the Second. Cap. XXXVII. An Act for better preventing the horrid Crime of Murder. London: Mark Basket, Robert Basket, Henry Woodfall &William Strahan; 1764; Vol 7; 440-1.

6Anon. A Collection of the Public general Statutes, passed in the Second and ThirdYear of the Reign of His Majesty King William the Fourth: Being the Second Session of the Tenth Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Cap. LXXV. An Act for Regulating Schools of Anatomy. 1st August 1832. London: George Eyre &Andrew Spottiswoode; 1832; 713-18.

7 Richardson R. Death, Dissection and the Destitute. London &New York: Routledge &Kegan Paul; 1987; 291-2.

8Anon, op. cit. ref. 6.

9Anon, op. cit. ref. 5.

10A Parliamentary commission was allowed access to Somerville’s records, much against his will, and reported in August 1842. As a result of their findings, Somerville was sacked shortly afterwards. See: Richardson, op. cit. ref. 7, 250.

11 Michie A. The Englishman in China During the Victorian Era as Illustrated in the Career of Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B., D.C.L. Many Years Consul and Minister in China and Japan. In 2 Volumes. Edinburgh &London:William Blackwood &Sons; I900. Anon. Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B., D.C.L. Brit Med J I897; ii: 1377-8. Power D’A. Alcock, Sir Rutherford (1809-1897). In: Plarr’s Lives of the Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. In 2 Volumes. Bristol: John Wright &Sons Ltd; 1930; Vol.I; 12-13. Anon. Alcock, Sir Rutherford (I809-I897). Dict Nat Biogr 1964-65;22,Suppl. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 29-30.

12Power D’A. Bacot, John (1781-1870). In: Plarr’s Lives of the Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. Bristol: John Wright &Sons Ltd; London: Simpkin Marshall Ltd.; 1930;Vol. I; 39-40.

13Richardson, op. cit. ref. 7, 250, footnote 93.

14Michie, op.cit ref. II, Volume 1, 25-6.

15 Craigie D. Dissertatio Physiologica Inauguralis Pauca de Rationibus, quae Animalibus cum Temperie Medii in quo Versantur, Intercedunt, Complectens;... Pro Gradu Doctoris ... Edinburgh: Abernethy &Walker; 1816 [43 pp + Appendix, 45-8].

16There were five other (unsuccessful) candidates considered for this post.

17 Kaufman MH. Medical education in Edinburgh during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Edinburgh: Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh; 2003, 135.

18See, for example: Craigie D. Elements of General and Pathological Anatomy,Adapted to the Present State of Knowledge in that Science. Edinburgh: Adam Black; London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, &Green; 1828. Craigie D. Elements of the Practice of Physic, presenting a view of the present state of Special Pathology and Therapeutics. Volume I. Edinburgh:Adam &Charles Black; London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, &Longman [sic]; 1836. Craigie D. Elements of the Practice of Physic, presenting a view of the present state of Special Pathology and Therapeutics. Volume 2. Edinburgh: Adam &Charles Black; London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, &Longmans; 1840. Craigie D. Elements of General, Special, and Comparative Anatomy. Edinburgh: Adam &Charles Black; London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green &Longmans; 1842, but undated. (Previously published in The Encyclopaedia Britannica . . . 7th edition; Vol. 2; 684-828; Plates 24-33; Edinburgh:Adam &Charles Black; 1842.)

19According to Richardson, Dr Wood was appointed an Inspector in 1842. See: Richardson, op. cit. ref. 7, 250, footnote 93.

20Anon. Dr David Craigie. Edinb Med Surg J 1866; 12:188-92.

21Anon. James Thomas Alexander, L.R.C.S., and Dr David Craigie. Lancet 1866; ii:282-3.

22Anon. Craigie, David, M.D. (1793-1866). Dict Nat Biogr 1963-64; 4. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1377.

23 Craig WS. History of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications; 1976.

24 Struthers J. Craigie. In: Historical Sketch of the Edinburgh Anatomical School. Edinburgh: Maclachlan &Stewart; 1867; 78.

25This is the only near contemporary source discovered to date where the date of his appointment to this post, of I832, coincides with the implementation of the Act.

26 Comrie JD. History of Scottish Medicine. 2 volumes. Second Edition. London: Baillière,Tindall &Cox; I932;Volume 2;498.

27See: Edinensis. Study of Anatomy in Edinburgh. Lancet 1837-8; 1:589-90 [letter to Editor]. As will be seen from later sections of this article, many of the points made by the author of this letter to the Lancet were incorrect, particularly his assertion that the University was only sent “intact” bodies.

28 Jacyna LS. Philosophic Whigs: Medicine, Science and Citizenship in Edinburgh, 1789-1848. London &New York: Routledge; 1994; 162-3.

29Mr Waugh had at that time been Treasurer to the City Charity Workhouse.

30See letter from William Campbell to William Mackenzie dated 3 March 1842. Glasgow University Library, Special Collection, MS Gen 1476, Box 18 [cited by Jacyna, op. cit. ref. 28, 163, footnote 61].

31Richardson, op. cit. ref. 7, 242.

32Jacyna, op. cit. ref. 28, 163.

33Minutes of the Managers of the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, commencing I7 January I842 and ending 8 July I844. Ref No LHBI/I/13,43.

34See: Edinburgh University Library, Special Collections Reference Number Att. 50. Two slim volumes cover the entire period between the Winter and Summer Sessions of 1832-33 and the period ending with the receipt of a body on 16 December 1837. Several other volumes cover the period up to 1850, but are very incomplete, and contain far less information than was provided in the first two volumes.

35It should be noted that over the years since the implementation of the Anatomy Act, the Managers of the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh had received a considerable number of complaints from a variety of sources. These principally concerned the apparent lack of an equitable distribution of bodies to the Extra-mural Schools of Anatomy. The lengthiest Report displayed in their Minutes was that prepared by Dr Alison, and dated 6 March I837, a small part of which is shown here. See reference 36.

36Minutes of the Managers, 6 March 1837. Ref No LHBI/1/11, November 1831-December 1837, 395-400, see 397-8.

37Ibid., 12 June 1837, 416.

38Ibid., 19 June 1837, 416. Unfortunately, no copy of this letter is available in the Minutes.

39 Jacyna LS , editor. A Tale of Three Cities: the correspondence of William Sharpey and Allen Thomson. London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine; 1989; 16 (in a letter from Sharpey to Thomson dated 30 April 1838).

40Ibid., 22.

41Op. cit. ref 39. The correspondence between William Sharpey and Allen Thomson between I836 and I880 is held in the Library of the University of Glasgow. It has been edited by Jacyna, and published by the Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine.

42Allen Thomson obtained his MD Edinburgh degree in I830, and his FRCS Edin diploma in the following year.

43 McDonald SW. The life and times of James Jeffray, Regius Professor of Anatomy, University of Glasgow, 1790-1848. Scot Med J 1995; 40:121-4.

44Minutes of the Managers, 26 November 1838. Ref. No. LHBI/I/12, 129.

45Minutes of the Managers, 13 March 1843. Ref. No. LHBI/I/13, 161.

46Minutes of the Managers, 20 March 1843. Ref. No. LHBI/I/13, 163. A copy of this note was sent to the Pathologist.

47John Gordon died in June I8I8 after a severe illness that lasted for I4 days. It was believed to have been due to fever of the brain to which he had been exposed and caught during his clinical duties in the Infirmary, and from which he subsequently died. See: Ellis D. Memoir of the Life and Writings of John Gordon, M.D., F.R.S.E., late Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology in Edinburgh. Edinburgh: A. Constable &Company; London: Hurst, Robinson &Company; 1823; 192-3.

48James Gregory, one of the most senior Physicians to the Infirmary, died of fever on 2 April 1821. See: Anon, Gregory, James (1753-1821). Dict Nat Biogr 1963-64; 8. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 542-4.

49Richardson, op. cit. ref. 7, 362, footnote 86.

50 Turner AL. Story of a Great Hospital:The Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh 1729-1929. Edinburgh &London: Oliver &Boyd; I937; I57-8.

51 Lonsdale H. A Sketch of the Life and Writings of Robert Knox the Anatomist. By his Pupil and Colleague. London: Macmillan &Co.; I870; I0I-2; see also: Kaufman, op. cit. ref. 4, 80.

52Roughead, op. cit. ref. 4, 28.

53 Deuchar S. The Immortal Memory. In: P Van der Merwe, editor. Nelson:An Illustrated History. London: Laurence King Publishing; 1995; 144-67;see: 148. Anon. Nelson, Horatio, Viscount Nelson (1758-1805). Dict Nat Biogr 14. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1963-64; 189-207. For a more detailed account of this episode, see: Russell WC. Horatio Nelson and the Naval Supremacy of England. New York &London: GP Putnam’s Sons; 1890; 306-08.

54For example, during the period between 7 December I848 and I8 January I849, a total of 30 bodies were transferred to the University, of which 27 died from an infective disease. Of these, six died from typhus and I7 from cholera.

55Jacyna, op.cit. ref.39, 18-20. In Sharpey’s letter to Thomson dated 24 November 1838, he provided him with full details for the preparation of this solution.

56Jacyna, op. cit. ref. 39, 18.

57For further details of the methodology involved in the practice of embalming, the reader should in the first instance consult Polson This volume also provides information on the law in relation to the embalming of bodies for anatomical dissection, as it then applied before the most recent (I984) revisions to the Anatomy Act. See: Polson CJ, Brittain RP, Marshall TK. The Disposal of the Dead. London: English Universities Press Ltd; 1953; 24-9.