Abstract
Universities across the country are faced with the challenges of meeting the demands of an increasing diverse student population. In order to address this need, many efforts have been made focusing on recruitment strategies for a more diverse faculty. While these recruiting efforts are essential, little attention has been paid to retention. By underscoring similar experiences, this article provides qualitative insight on issues around the negotiation of identities as Latinas in classrooms, institutions, and research programs. It argues for urgency from institutions of higher education in urban, diverse environments to address the Latina experience, social locations, and standpoints. The purpose of this article is to use narratives from current junior Latina faculty to highlight the need for and the development of effective mentoring programs that address the unique needs of diverse faculty. In sharing the author’s varying experiences and challenges from graduate school to careers in academia, we hope to influence policies and decisions that consider the unique cultural experiences of Latina graduate students, early career scientists, and junior faculty. Our fundamental goal is to advocate for structured mentoring programs as a critical component to ensuring retention and increasing academic success within a diverse professoriate.
Keywords
Introduction
Colleges and universities are faced with the challenge of supporting the needs of an increasingly diverse student population. Many administrators have implemented initiatives formulated to attract and recruit faculty that represent the gender and cultural diversity of their student body (Delgado-Romero et al., 2007; Turner et al., 2008). Despite these efforts, several researchers have highlighted the importance of recognizing the cultural disconnect that exists between institutional policies and the type of work environment that cultivates the successful retention of such personnel (Ahmed, 2012; Dancy and Brown, 2011; Ponjuan, 2011). With graduation rates among doctoral level Latinas increasing (National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, 2015), those that enter the professoriate are faced with unique challenges as they transition from postdoctoral and graduate studies into full-time tenure-track positions in academia. These challenges, if not successfully navigated, undoubtedly impact their long-term academic success in the professoriate. Furthermore, while recruiting efforts are essential in attracting junior faculty of color (Smith 2020; Wilson 1987), few have addressed mentoring and support strategies to increase retention and in order to help new professors of color acclimate to a career in academia (Aguirre and Banda, 2019; De Luca and Escoto, 2012; Harte et al., 2011; Zambrana et al., 2015). Little research has been conducted that focuses specifically on the unique experiences and challenges of Latina faculty resulting in a gap in the literature (Turner, 2002). Furthermore, the research that has been conducted emphasizes the need for supportive programs for junior faculty that are culturally competent in order to improve faculty success (Delgado-Romero et al., 2007; Ponjuan, 2011; Turner, 2002).
This article addresses the current gap in the literature on Latina faculty members by focusing on the importance of structured mentoring programs that are both culturally sensitive and recognize the contemporary struggles that Latina junior faculty contend with. This article highlights the critical role structured mentoring programs play in supporting Latina PhDs in navigating academic roles that they were historically discriminated and discouraged from seeking (Turner, 2002). The goal is that these narratives be used to ultimately increase the retention of Latina faculty members.
Through the voices of three Latina junior faculty from different interdisciplinary fields, we will discuss some of the present-day challenges we have encountered as we transitioned from doctoral and postdoctoral programs to tenure-track faculty positions within the social sciences and STEM field. The narratives are based on the personal experiences of the authors. All are Latina faculty members working with a diverse population of students at public institutions in New York City.
Literature review
Contemporary challenges of Latina junior faculty
A review of the literature has revealed a paucity in documenting the lives and challenges of Latina faculty members in academia (Medina and Luna, 2000). Women of color account for only 14% of faculty members in the United States with Latinas accounting for only 4% of faculty nationwide (Nuñez and Murakami-Ramalho, 2012). Furthermore, a relatively low number of these faculty members advance within their careers in higher education. In 2013, only 2.3% of Latina faculty were tenured (National Center for Education Statistics, IPEDS Data Center, 2018). These findings indicate that despite college recruitment efforts geared at increasing diversity and bridging gender inequalities, failure to identify and successfully address the challenges faced by Latina faculty members make these efforts counterproductive and ineffective (Ahmed, 2012).
Several challenges associated with academic life contribute to a lack of retention of Latina professors. Feelings of isolation, conflicts between cultural, family obligations and academic responsibilities, and feeling under-respected and overburdened were common among both Latina college students and faculty (Hernandez and Morales, 1999; Luna and Cullen, 1995; Medina and Luna, 2000; Turner et al., 2008; Valoy, 2012; Zambrana et al., 2015). Furthermore, within the professoriate, women of color often report having higher advisement loads due to lack of faculty–student representation and a tendency for students to seek out same-race advisors (Turner et al., 2008). Women in academia are frequently expected to decide between family and career advancement, creating a major dilemma for Latinas for whom traditional cultural values of “familismo” and family solidarity are often an important aspect of their identity (Castellanos and Gloria, 2007; Villenas and Moreno, 2001). This cultural disconnect can lead to a number of consequences as Latinas may be viewed as not being as committed to their work as their non-Latino colleagues. In their research on mothers in academia, Ward and Wolf-Wendel (2004) found that the multiple role demands of being an academic mom can be one of the biggest challenges for female faculty who may feel that they are working around the clock and who may have concerns about gaps in their academic portfolio for taking time off to care for children—these may be compounded among Latina faculty.
For those Latinas who are unwilling to sacrifice their personal values and beliefs for the sake of professional advancement, this may result in burn-out or value conflicts ultimately causing them to leave the professoriate: Being a single mother with full financial responsibility for my son, I have experienced “motherhood/baby penalty” first hand as I am responsible for teaching, running a research lab, publishing primary literature and obtaining funding. Going from being on the fast track to all of a sudden having limitations, and even more so because there is no support or structured mentoring for women like myself. Now I have to think about child care, delegating tasks in the laboratory, having to schedule everything around my child’s schedule and needs. There’s always the question of am I doing it right? Should I do more? Am I doing too much and neglecting my son? At what expense? Should I leave my institution? (Author 2) I accepted the job at a two-year institution with a 5:4 course load having a toddler because I was given course release. It was necessary to reduce my teaching load to a 3:3 so that I could learn how to navigate the new institution, continue to do research, get some publications out and have time with my family. It was a struggle. I didn’t realize the emotional and physical toll my body took to have to compartmentalize my roles...at work I was supposed to only be an academic so things like pumping breast milk and having to take time off to address family issues were huge affairs that involved talking to my chair, administration and human resources. Even small things like not being able to enter my university building with my daughter to get paperwork from my office reminded me how I was meant to only show up as a laborer. It's a twisted experience when you are told you're being hired because of who you are and the skills / perspective you bring, yet in order to operate on a daily basis at work you are expected to strip yourself of all non-academic roles and differences. (Author 3) As an academic mom, I believe that to thrive in academia it is important to believe that you can eventually find balance between work and home. Otherwise, there is that risk you take of feeling that you are giving up parts of yourself that are incredibly important in exchange for doing the work that you enjoy. I still have to remind myself constantly that my happiness and health are a priority above everything else. Prior to going on the job market, I was told that one who chooses a career in academia is committing to working nonstop. I was concerned about being able to find a good work-life balance in academia. (Author 1)
For a number of Latina faculty, the challenges encountered in the professoriate reflect a long history of feeling isolated and unsupported in higher education (Turner, et al., 2008). For many, the feelings of isolation and alienation appeared early on in their educational careers and were compounded by the high drop-out rates of Latinos in academe. This resulted in a limited number of peers of similar cultural backgrounds at the doctoral level as well as feelings of discrimination and a lack of cultural sensitivity from professors throughout their schooling (Garcia and Henderson, 2015; Medina and Luna, 2000). Studies have shown that Latinas experience more microaggressions and discrimination in work and academic settings than men, and some of these effects are ethnicity dependent (Mazzula and Nadal, 2015; Nadal, et al., 2014). Feelings of oppression were frequently compounded by academic ethnocentrism and those who spoke up about feelings of inequality faced the repercussions of being stereotyped as emotional or angry Latinas, a label that is often reserved for women of color (Garcia, 2005).
In a qualitative study by Medina and Luna (2000), the authors interviewed three Latina women teaching at public institutions who reported feelings of “tokenism” which was described as the participants feeling valued primarily because of their racial background as opposed to their abilities. This feeling of tokenism resulted in a perception of Latinas being hired for their racial background rather than their abilities which contributed to resentment by colleagues leading to further feelings of alienation within the professoriate. These experiences are parallel with the empirical research on imposter syndrome (Dancy and Brown, 2011).
The benefits of mentoring
Mentoring involves a personal relationship in which a faculty member guides, advises, supports, and challenges the mentee toward the “development of professional identity and a clear professional competence” (Johnson‐Bailey and Cervero, 2002, p. 88). Kram and Isabella (1985) suggested that mentoring consisted of two functions—preparing individuals for a career and providing emotional support. Role modeling is also important (in mentoring) as faculty members model the “role” graduate students are expected to learn (Blankemeyer and Weber 1996; Peyton et al., 2001).
Research has shown that mentoring can be essential in navigating the challenges associated with understanding institutional norms and expectations during the job search and in acclimating to an academic position; however, it usually is not built into the graduate or assistant professor journey
Although universities vary in how they rank, quantify, and assess faculty achievement, the general standards upon which tenure and promotion are awarded are teaching, research, creative activity and service (Otieno, 2014). How these are supposed to be specifically represented in the tenure dossier are generally not described by the institution. Success in academia is often not a clear-cut transparent formula. It is a case specific, and in many ways, secretive process that requires that those before us reach back and take the hands of the newbies. A university committed to retention recognizes that their university has a unique cultural and professional landscape with a variety of idiosyncrasies among departments. Thus, focusing on recruiting well-trained and best fit academics does not guarantee retention and successful tenure at their university without effective structured mentoring programs between well-matched senior and assistant professors. Crawford and Smith (2005) state that the “absence of a mentor does not mean that individuals cannot be successful in their careers, but it may mean that certain resources or opportunities will not be available....[such as] jobs that require sponsorship or mentors are the most sought after. Thriving is more than just “seeking opportunities; instead of waiting for the knock on the door.” Yes that saying definitely speaks truth in that you need to be proactive about your progress and future success….but what if you don’t know that opportunities actually exist? That was my challenge. What I have learned about getting ahead, especially in an academic institution that does not have my cultural beliefs or social realities at the heart of its structure, is that one needs access to information which means having invested mentors, and others, that will guide you, introduce you to their networks and explain the institutional ins and outs as they know them. However, as much as I’ve heard from colleagues and academic workshops that it’s up to me to create the mentor network I need, I questioned how well I could do that as a first-year assistant professor. (Author 3)
Research on educational attainment, tenure success, and promotion consistently shows that mentoring is a vital component to success especially for females and underrepresented faculty (Cavazos, 2016; Louque and Garcia 2000; Mack and Camacho, 2013; Nettles 1990; Renaud and Suarez-Renaud 2008). Mentoring relationships have also proved beneficial in alleviating structural and cultural barriers as most universities continue to be white-male dominant (Aud et al., 2012). Institutional racism, prejudice, cultural insensitivity, marginalization, and devaluation of research interests are some factors that can have adverse impact on the performance of members of underrepresented groups (Harte et al., 2011; Turner et al., 2008; Otieno 2013). Nevertheless, such cultural differences and structural barriers can be mitigated with the development of diverse, culturally appropriate avenues of expression within the academic climate (Louque and Garcia 2000), structured mentoring programs for institutional and departmental socialization and fostering of informal networks of faculty/administrators (Turner et al., 2008). The seminal work of Nettles (1990) revealed that Hispanics and African-American students who interact with faculty perform better, are happier, have higher grade point averages, and enjoy a greater amount of satisfaction with their doctoral programs when compared with those who do not interact with faculty. Cuadraz and Pierce (1994) describe relationships within departments they believed were necessary for success, including the process of inculcation and socialization which gave them insight into the attitudes and motivation that is expected in academe.
Organizational socialization plays a significant role in shaping the values faculty hold regarding the objectives of scholarship. This socialization process entails the communication of the requisite professorial role behaviors, norms, and values stressed by the college or university of one’s academic appointment. Tierney and Rhoads (1994) wrote that in some cases the process of organizational socialization sustains what the faculty member has acquired through the graduate school socialization process. In other cases, this process entails a transformation of the professorial role behaviors, norms, and values of an individual faculty member that are at odds with those preferred by the institution (Tierney and Rhoads, 1994). Guided organizational socialization can also alleviate some of the stressors associated with negotiating cultural/ethnic beliefs/priorities with those of the institution: Consequently, even after securing an academic position, the most significant stressor for me the first year remained adjusting to the norms and finding a sense of alignment between my own personal values and goals. Would I be able to have children and succeed in academia? Would I have to work 24/7 to prove myself? Since so many of my values derive from my cultural heritage, these values shaped my priorities and as I embarked on my new career, it was critical for me to assess whether I would be able to fulfill the obligations of my new position while remaining true to my values. Were it not for the support of my department coordinator, I doubt that I would have been able to find balance. (Author 1)
Race and the mentoring relationship
In the corporate world, most mentoring relationships described by persons of color are cross-race and cross-gender, largely because of the overrepresentation of white men in positions of seniority in the organization (Dreher and Cox, 1996; Thomas, 1990). In academia, due to overrepresentation of white men in power positions there is often a lack of female Latina faculty available to mentor junior Latina faculty even in Hispanic serving institutions (Turner, et al., 2008). Although it is impossible to match same-race mentor and mentee, students of color often tend to go to those faculty of color even when they are not their assigned advisor. While this informal versus structured mentoring arrangement can be beneficial to both mentor and mentee, it could also add to the burden in workload of faculty of color (Luedke, 2007; Turner, et al., 2008).
Evidence suggests there is value in same-race mentorship (Thomas, 1990; Thomas, 1993). Thomas’ (1990) research found that African-Americans (70% who were cross-raced mentor usually with a white mentor) went beyond their departmental and hierarchical boundaries to establish relationships with other African-Americans. Same-race developmental relationships were reported to provide more psychosocial support than cross-race relationships, for both African-American and white participants. Research suggests that same-race mentors can smooth conflicts between the values of the student’s culture or community and those of the institution (Thomas, 1990; Thomas, 1993. Indeed, same-race mentors can instill hope in their mentees by showing that success is possible without having to abandon one’s cultural identity.
However, an automatic pairing of graduate students of color with same-race mentors is neither possible, given the low rates of academics of color, nor necessarily the priority. Students of color need mentors who are effective and influential in the department, regardless of racial background. Davidson and Foster-Johnson (2001) argue that a match based on race is not the most important aspect of mentoring. Some of the recommendations they have for establishing successful cross-race mentoring are for each person to know what stage they are in the racial maturity chart and to plot where the other is as well, to have mentors go through diversity training and to have knowledge of professional development opportunities based on interest, gender, ethnicity, and race (Davidson and Foster-Johnson, 2001).
Garcia (2005) interviewed Latina faculty at several institutions about their experience in academia and documented the following themes: Lack of mentoring/disparities, academic ethnocentrism, tokenism, and alienation and isolation. In Garcia’s (2012) current work on mentoring faculty of color, she reflects on her own experience in academia and a young domestic Latina and attributes her ability to “overcome” the overt and covert issues of inequality , which she calls the “trauma of graduate school,” by finding theoretical-intellectual inspiration and grounding outside of my ethnocentric discipline, having an advisor/mentor of color that believed in me and provided unwavering support and mobilized with other politically-minded students of color in and outside my department” (p. 71). With the current state or lack of mentoring opportunities for many minority faculty, especially Latina faculty, Garcia (2012) believes it is imperative to “branch out when identifying potential allies; remember to select based on the color of one’s politics and research, not the color of one’s skin (or gender) (p. 79). It was not until graduate school that I experienced feelings of cultural isolation. The further I moved up in my studies, the fewer Latino peers I had. I remember the day I shared with a classmate that I had received a full scholarship to graduate school. He assumed that it was due to affirmative action and not because I earned high grades. It took the joy right out of the experience. I feared that I was perceived as a “token” minority there to meet a diversity quota and who did not earn her way to a full scholarship. (Author 1)
Methodology
This article uses autobiographical narratives of the three authors to explore the various functions effective mentoring plays, or can play, in supporting early career Latina in the professoriate. No sampling was conducted as the authors are reporting analysis of their own personal and career experiences as Latina faculty. The study was granted IRB exemption on 2/13/2020 by the City University of New York.
Narrative inquiry is a methodology used in the social and behavioral sciences (Chase, 2005) that centers the lived experiences of the narrator to understand the particular social context in which the life was lived and story told. Previous works have utilized autobiographical narrative inquiry to tell stories of diversity (Saleh and Clandinin, 2014) and of educational experiences (Connelly and Clandinin, 1990). Following authors such as Moraga and Anzaldúa (2002), the authors use their narratives to highlight the realm of particular intersecting, and diverging experiences that Latina professors have based on race, nationality, ethnicity, class, gender, affiliation, scholarly agenda, and other. Social scientist and qualitative methodologists argue that “because such instances of storytelling are not as prevalent as they need to be in our social and educational history, the work of de/colonizing researchers is to create a space of intersectionality, highlighting individual standpoints while offering solidarity to others in similar situations” (Bhattacharya, 2016).
The intent of our work is to use narratives from highlight the importance of access to structured and effective mentoring programs in aiding Latina faculty members as they encounter challenges associated with academia. Each of us provided responses to the following five questions designed to capture data about our experiences prior to and after entering academia: (1) What factors influenced your decision to pursue a PhD? (2) Why did you pursue an academic career teaching in your discipline? (3) What were your experiences in either taking advantage of or not having access to a structured mentoring program in your educational history? (4) What strategies did you use or implement to obtain mentoring and what challenges (if any) did you experience in obtaining mentoring? (5) What challenges have you encountered in seeking and adjusting to a position in academia? The responses to these questions were coded and resulted in six key themes including the following: Motivations for a career in academia, challenges in the professoriate, the importance of peer support, mentoring experiences, experiences with structured mentoring programs or lack thereof, and work–life balance. In addition to the themes, each of us share mid tenure-track experiences and perspectives to provide a long view (about 10 years) from graduate school to the present. These key themes along with their respective narratives are presented below.
Narratives of Latina junior faculty
In reflecting on our journey to becoming “successful” academics, five key themes emerged.
Motivations for pursuing a career in academia
The literature on why Latinas pursue academic careers remains sparse. In a study depicting narratives of Latinas in the professoriate, Medina and Luna (2000) faculty express the importance of maternal figures such as their own mothers or female professors and advisers they have encountered along the way as being influential in their choice to pursue careers in Academia. This sentiment was echoed in our own narratives: I grew up in the 1980s in the Hunts Point section of the South Bronx, where most of the neighborhoods had burned down but people found ways to live in the rubble. Because of my hard-working grandparents and persevering single mom, who believed that education could be the way out of low-paying jobs, I had the wonderful opportunity to attend catholic elementary school and an all-girl catholic high school before getting the golden-ticket into Cornell University for undergrad. I was the first to graduate college not to mention pursue a higher education, but achieving those degrees came from a hard-working and problem-solving ethos that runs deep in my family. (Author 3) As a second-generation Latina born to immigrant parents, the importance of education was a value that was instilled in me at a very young age. My parents, like many immigrants who come to this country in search of the American Dream, believed that education was the key to a life of stability and opportunity. I knew that continuing my education was not only a family expectation but also a privilege. Throughout college and graduate school, my passion for learning grew and education gave me a new lens through which I could view the world- a contrast to growing up in poverty in a drug-infested neighborhood. My passion for helping others and desire to become a leader in my profession led me to pursue a career in social work and eventually to pursue a PhD in Social Work. I could not envision myself as a professor. Once I taught my first class as an adjunct, I saw that I could make a tremendous impact on the lives of my students and I knew that a career in academia was on the horizon. I must say I enjoy seeing the look on my student’s faces after they learn I am their professor since they often assume, I am a classmate. I don’t fit the stereotype of the older white male professor they are used to. (Author 1) My undergraduate education was at the University of Puerto Rico where I majored in Biology. I knew I had to engage in research projects that would provide me with enough experience to consolidate my dreams of earning a PhD. Like many biology majors, I considered a medical degree, but it was hard to turn away from the bench and from the idea, “that I could change the way that people understood a scientific phenomenon.” (Author 2)
Research by Lindholm revealed that the desire to alleviate gender and racial disparities and concerns about social justice are also influential factors for many minorities who enter the professoriate. For the professors in the study, the desire to create social change and opportunities for future generations of female scholars was an important motivator: I wanted to discover things, contribute the understanding the concepts and potentially pave the way for others to do the same things. I was able to witness the impact my parents had on their students and I realized that in addition to my thirst for knowledge and discovery, I wanted to disrupt the systems that were not set up for women of color. Obtaining a PhD meant being an expert at something. It meant advancing the field of medicine and biomedical sciences by pursuing a degree in Neuroscience. It gave me the opportunity to do the things I was raised seeing and was passionate about, education, youth, research, understanding and discovery. There’s a sense of responsibility, but also excitement when you see young, bright faces that depend on what you tell them in order to increase their knowledge base. Academia provides me with a platform to voice my opinion, mold lives and make a contribution to the future not just in the classroom, but also through my research. Having a research program that focuses on the effects of both drugs of abuse and therapeutic drugs on brain and behavior allows me study make a significant contribution to health care. An academic position supports innovation and fosters collaborations within the scientific community as well as encourages the dissemination of this information without any restrictions to an agenda that isn’t one that you are interested in. It provides intellectual growth through interactions with colleagues and students, which makes the possibilities for scientific contributions limitless. (Author 2)
Peer support: Alternatives to mentoring
Researchers have highlighted the important role of peer support in helping women navigate the challenges of graduate school and academia. Research has shown that peer support may be beneficial when structured mentoring is not available in helping women to acclimate to academic culture (Valoy, 2012) particularly in fields that are primarily male dominated such as academia (Erlich et al., 2017): In place of a structured mentorship, I made it through graduate school, post-doctoral fellowships and first year of professoriate by using the external network of PhD-seeking or PhD-having friends. These were the people who at times shoulder tapped me about housing, job, service, professional, grant and fellowship opportunities. I believe that having a strong external network of support in academia is imperative but it doesn’t take the place of having a mentor at your institution. (Author 3) Given the lack of accessible mentoring programs available to me, I have frequently sought out and relied on the support of peers for mentoring as well as for social support. The positive relationships I have developed with colleagues and a select number of classmates through the years have served as a source of strength, support, and motivation for me. In transitioning to a career in academia, the friendships that have developed in seeking peer mentors have been invaluable in “normalizing” much of the anxiety that often accompanies any transition. Developing these types of relationships takes both courage and a willingness to ask for help which depending on both personality and cultural factors may come more easily to some than others. (Author 1) Having a support system in this journey is critical for survival. One of the ways that I began to understand the dynamics of our school was by talking to other colleagues and peers. Especially when there are inequities, people are very quick to discuss these issues. Creating a safe space and going into places where power and privilege play out as a collective in critical for survival in an academic institution. Peers will provide you with solace, advice and protection. (Author 2)
Past advising and mentoring experiences
The decision to pursue a Ph.D. came out of a conversation with an undergraduate advisor. I told him I really enjoyed studying anthropology and wanted to know what I could do if I pursued a higher education in anthropology. He told me that most of the cultural anthropologists he knew were professors and the only one outside of academia, was a real estate broker. I loved the intellectual and social landscape of universities enough to decide that a doctorate and professoriate in anthropology was the path for me. However, I didn’t know the stakes, the challenges or even what Ph.D. stood for but I forged ahead. (Author 3)
Forming mentoring/advisory relationships when there is a lack of structured mentorship programs can be beneficial and effective. However as shown in (Author 3) comment below, lack of structured mentoring and guidance may cause anxiety and confusion and have detrimental professional and personal effects on both parties: A black female assistant professor on my committee invested in me more than all the professors I worked with put together. However, she was not my chair. As mentioned earlier, I received several consejos to make my chair a senior (associate or full) professor. Why? Because they were established in the department/ university and were less likely to be fired (stripped of tenure) during my Ph.D. process. In addition, senior professor would possibly have connections with other scholars, institutions, publishers and editors. Fine, so I did that. However, the professor that was deeply invested in my research, my professional and personal development was this junior professor. This tension came to ahead when I returned from the field and started writing up. On return, I sought the advice, writing support and overall mentorship from my junior committee member. One of them brought it up casually in conversation one day that she needed to focus on her own writing since I wasn’t her student. It hurt me deeply. Though I (and she) understood the politics of department that I was navigating (tenured professor as chair), it still was unfair. That same junior professor didn’t get tenure. I was the last PhD student that she, as a committee member and not chair, helped put through. (Author 3)
As Author 3 experience demonstrates, the higher “invisible” workload that women of color in academia face can impact their ability to focus on tasks that may be regarded as more crucial for achieving tenure than advising students (Turner, 2002). Therefore, women of color in academia may find themselves torn between activities that will earn them tenure and doing work that they may find more fulfilling: I will never say that getting a PhD was easy, but one of the things that made it possible was being part of the APA Diversity in Neuroscience Program as well as the NSF - Alliance for Graduate Education and the Professoriate (AGEP). The importance of having mentors inside and outside of the institution is critical when embarking on a graduate degree and more so if you want to be successful in academia. These two programs provided their students with an intellectual community and a safe haven to ask questions, practice talks, proofread papers, with no judgment or feeling like you were less than because although you have no accent when you speak English, you may not be the strongest technical writer. My experiences of being an APA fellow and attending MSU were interesting in the sense that I came from an environment of always being the majority, most people that reside in Puerto Rico identify themselves as Puerto Rican, to being identified as minority. It came with a sense of responsibility. Every single one of my mentors stressed that I had to always do better than everyone else, and although at times I felt like the “token” minority or the “poster child,” I carried their words in my heart and tried my hardest to be the best that I could be. Here were some of the most prominent people in my field, that not only believed in me, but also wanted to see me succeed. They pushed me to excel. (Author 2)
Research on the effectiveness of mentoring reveals that in addition to providing opportunities, a holistic approach must consider the individual’s values, multiple identities, and cultural experience (Turner et al., 2008; Santa-Ramirez, 2021): Even though I was part of structured programs, that provided limitless opportunities, it didn’t mean that I didn’t experience obstacles. I had an advisor that thought some of my extracurricular activities were taking from my time in the lab and were negatively impacting my performance. I often heard, “you are spreading yourself too thin” or “you are being overambitious.” However, she did not realize that these restored my drive and motivation. My advisor did not understand that along with being a scientist, I also identify as Puerto Rican and a woman. Having those spaces allowed me to hear that could obtain this degree, and now I realize that what my advisor saw as a distraction, was the one thing I could do to see my whole self. (Author 2)
Structured mentoring programs experiences versus non-exposure
I entered graduate school through the institutional guidance of two programs the Mellon Mays Undergraduate Program and the Institute of Recruitment of Teachers (IRT). Mellon Mays program fostered my research interest and skills while providing me with a national network of minority scholars-in-the-making and minority scholars who made it (aka achieved a PhD, postdoctoral, tenure track). IRT provided the immediate bridge into graduate school with an intensive summer boot camp of graduate and SAT courses and college application workshops and application assistance (financial and editorial). The collegial networks I built assisted me through the emotional pits of graduate school, reminding me that I wasn’t the only one out there struggling and that some of us actually make it. (Author 3) I was offered several fellowships meant for minority students for graduate school and in my first year of predoc I was awarded the Diversity in Neuroscience Program Fellowship from the American Psychological Association for three years. The fellowship program provided me with a limitless network of mentors, advisors and colleagues that have made a significant impact in my career today. They taught me that it was my responsibility, as a Latina, to work as hard as possible and always set high standards. I was taught to always be ahead of the game and to show why I gained admission to program. I was encouraged and praised when I completed each of the critical steps to becoming a Neuroscientist, something that was not as readily available in my home institution. Later, during my last two years of my graduate program I was affiliated with the Alliance for Graduate Education and the Professoriate and was able to attend the Institute of Teaching and Mentoring. I was the first person of color to graduate with a PhD in Neuroscience from my university. While training to be a neuroscientist there were several courses that introduced me to survival skills for academia. The Summer Program in Neuroscience, Ethics and Survival (SPINES), as well as the workshops and meetings I attended were geared to prepare fellows for academic success. I was exposed to an incredible network of people in Neuroscience that were advocates for diversity in the STEM fields. The information and the support provided by these programs prepared me for a long tenure until finally obtaining my faculty position. My colleagues that went with me on this journey as still the first people I call and talk to when I need advice and the mentors who offered to guide me as a fellow are still very present in my academic life. Having sustained mentoring relationships helped me to navigate finding the right post-doctoral training environment that mirrored where I wanted to work later on. These opportunities also opened doors in turns of mentors, colleagues and collaborators that I currently engage with. Most are people committed to elevating people of color in academia and don’t feel threatened by the talent young faculty bring. (Author 2)
As reflected in Author 3 and Author 2 narratives, the experience of mentoring while in graduate school can be a key component in orienting students to faculty life and the world of academia. Research has shown that graduate school can be instrumental in socializing doctoral students to the professoriate and to accessing opportunities that enhance their success. These opportunities can also be essential in helping Latina doctoral students anticipate and prepare for challenges in the professoriate. However, there are times that programs are created in a way that may limit accessibility to students who struggle with multiple role demands associated which are common among Latina doctoral students (Valoy, 2012) as highlighted below: One of the biggest barriers was finding a mentoring program for which I met the eligibility requirements. As a student who as living independently and working two jobs to support myself and my family members abroad, I did not have the day time availability required to partake of these programs. Another barrier, and one that is the case for many low- and middle-income students, is the catch 22 of needing to work to make ends meet, yet being deemed as earning too much to qualify for programs that required one to fall within the set income guidelines. (Author 1)
Work–life balance
Several articles have highlighted the multiple demands that graduate students and faculty of color face in serve as barriers to success in academia (Medina and Luna, 2000; Turner et al., 2008; Valoy, 2012). For many students, the cultural conflicts between Latino family values and values in the professoriate may serve not only as a deterrent to completion of graduate programs (Valoy, 2012) but also to applying for academic positions: For me it has always been important to learn how to balance family obligations and relationships with the demands of academic work. In fact, my concern about this balance was one of the reasons that I refused to consider a career in academia for such a long time. Prior to going on the job market, I also read the forums online that talk about how one who chooses a career in academia is committing to working nonstop. This was a significant deterrent for me and I would imagine for other Latinas who want to be both academics and moms. (Author 1) I do think that our institution is family friendly, on the outside. As a young investigator and tenure track medical professor, I have had to seek mentors and advisors to help navigate the untold requisites to “make it”. I have learned to be unapologetic, but imposter syndrome seeps in. I am not sure if it ever ends, it has just taken a different structure. We have to keep pushing our institutions to make structural changes to support Latina researchers. (Author 2)
Discussion
The narratives in this article highlight the importance of mentoring to enhance retention efforts and maintain qualified professors of color by highlighting the experiences of three Latina assistant professors each in different disciplines at a large, multi-sited, diverse public institution in a major metropolitan city. Our stories reflect our individual and collective process from deciding whether to pursue a PhD to landing our first junior positions in academia. Our journey and challenges along the way reflect the inherent meritocracy that continues to exist in the academic world today where the rules to success and tenure are much more ambiguous and entail much more than being an expert in one’s field. Effective mentoring could not only aid recruitment and retention but can be a powerful moderator to the inequalities that Latina faculty face in their journey to become tenured. Structured mentoring programs can play a critical part in shifting university culture and structure toward inclusion and equity.
As shared in these stories, assistant professors and aspiring academics seeking guidance and support may search for mentors on their own or accept a colleague’s offer for mentoring. Such a whim or happenchance relationship may not always be productive, effective, and beneficial. We do not want to undermine or disregard the positive impact that “do-it-yourself” mentoring relationships can have. However, we are concerned that universities, departments, and organizations are relying on, and even expecting, such informal mentor relationships to take the place of structured mentoring programs. This assumes, or expects that, assistant professors understand the (1) universities cultural and political landscape, (2) tenure-process, and (3) their own needs in relation to both university and tenure-process expectations. It also assumes that senior mentors are (1) prepared to guide assistant professors from diverse cultural and professional backgrounds, (2) informed of current tenure-track expectations, and (3) willing to take on extra work hours for activities that lie outside of tenure appraisal.
Beyond creating a university culture of commitment and support of faculty, retention efforts such as structured mentoring programs have positive effects to the university’s financial bottom-line. Betts and Sikorski (2008) assessed the cost of attrition and turnover rates for faculty and suggest that the overall costs of recruiting, training, and “replacing faculty/adjunct can be staggering. Moreover, the short- and long-term effects of online faculty/adjunct who are not properly trained through recruitment and retention plans can result in faculty/adjunct attrition, student attrition, low graduation rates, legal action, and negatively affect the reputation of an institution.” We suspect that these costs may be equal if not higher when considering the attrition and turnover of assistant professors as well as the cost of recruiting and hiring.
This article adds to the current literature on the experiences of Latina women in the professoriate and highlights the importance of structured mentoring programs in helping to alleviate these challenges and increase retention. We share our narratives on the challenges and experiences we encountered on our graduate school journey and into the professoriate with the intention of changing these structures for those that come after us. While we recognize that our experiences are unique and may not necessarily represent the experiences of other junior faculty, we hope that that this research will inform college administrators in the development of structured mentoring programs that are holistic and culturally sensitive to the needs of Latina junior faculty.
