Incorporating gender issues into the classroom: Study on the teaching of gender-related courses in the general curriculum of Taiwan’s universities

Abstract

Gender equality is a universal and local issue. National policies have been initiated to ensure gender equality and to safeguard human rights on campus. Gender-related courses have been developed in the general education centers of various universities to allow the concept of gender equality to take root and flourish in these universities and to establish just and safe university campuses in Taiwan. This study examines the introduction of gender issues into the general curriculum of universities and discusses its implications for teaching practice and the establishment of gender-equal university campuses. After reviewing related literature, the following recommendations are made for the teaching of gender issues in universities’ general curricula: (a) teaching must be devoid of gender discrimination, (b) gender awareness for teachers, (c) consideration of gender differences in the teaching field, (d) implementation of reverence for justice in the teaching field, (e) increasing students’ awareness of gender equality, and (f) fostering a teaching atmosphere of mutual respect.

Introduction

Taiwan’s traditional preference of sons over daughters has influenced the Taiwanese population’s view of women and gender discrimination still exists in Taiwanese society. Pay for men and women is different for the same work. The word “pedagogy” originates from the Greek phrase, “to lead a boy.” It was not until the nineteenth century that Western countries began promoting women’s education, but this impetus was dampened by the belief that education was harmful to women’s health. Dyhouse mentioned that even medical authorities promoted the misinformation that university education would lead to infertility among women. If women did manage to enroll in school, they entered an education system that did not consider the needs of a woman as an independent individual. Instead, women were relegated into a marginal position and were expected to prepare for duties as a wife and mother (Chang, 2021; Pan, 1998; Tsai, 1998).

In the late 1960s, under the influence of social human rights movements and women’s movements, the lack of female representation in academia became obvious. All scientific researchers at the time were men so male perspectives became established as the mainstream thought and the views of ordinary women were ignored (Chen, 2004).

In the 1980s, women’s studies began to question the legitimacy of old gender theories and to reconstruct new theories. Different feminist schools of thought have developed different strategies to address the unequal treatment of women until the present day. Liberal feminism emphasizes gender-equality education and the elimination of stereotyped gender roles but radical feminism emphasizes sexual autonomy and the awakening of consciousness (Chen, 2004).

In the 1990s, women’s studies earned recognition as an academic resource that provided a future direction for women’s empowerment and promoted interdisciplinary dialog and integration. An important development at this stage was the evolution of women’s research to gender research, which then developed to include discrimination based on race, class and age (Chen, 2004). Some studies also show that educational experiences often differ, according to a student’s gender (Klein, 1993), so the issue of gender discrimination is a focus of inquiry in the field of education.

Since 2010 in Taiwan, many women’s groups and individuals have influenced laws that relate to women and gender, whether new or revised and have progressed the movement toward gender equality. The recommendations of the amended Family Law of the Civil Code and the Gender Equality Education Law were included in the consultation report on education reform in 1996, which stipulated the implementation of gender-equal education in primary and secondary schools, and the Sexual Assault Crime Prevention Act was passed in 1996 (announced and implemented in 1997) (Lin, 2008; Su, 2006; Wang, 2010).

The Ministry of Education established the Sexual Equality Education Committee in 1997, which mandated that the curriculum for Taiwanese Grades 1–9 include sex education. The Domestic Violence Prevention Law was also passed in the same year. In 2000, the Gender Work Equality Law was passed, followed by the Gender Equality Education Law in 2004. This provided a legal basis for the implementation of gender-equality education in schools (Lin, 2008; Su, 2006; Wang, 2010).

The period from 2010 to 2020 was a dynamic one for Taiwan’s pursuit of gender equality and various laws and regulations that strongly support the implementation of gender-equality education at all levels, and particularly at the school level, were enacted (Lin, 2008). Gender-related courses were also incorporated into university-level curricula during this period.

Many universities offer gender-related courses, such as National Taiwan University’s course on women and gender studies, National Chengchi University’s interdisciplinary course on gender studies, National Central University’s credit course on gender education, National Tainan University’s gender and ethnicity program and National Taipei University's gender education course in Arts Education Program. These developments bear testimony to the great value that universities attach to gender issues. Some Taiwanese universities have included gender-related courses into the general education curriculum.

This paper examines this incorporation and the development of gender-related courses in the general curriculum of Taiwanese universities, with specific regard to the teaching of gender-related courses for gender education in Taiwanese higher education. Examples of the incorporation of gender issues in universities’ general courses are given and the teaching of gender issues in the general curriculum of Taiwanese universities is discussed.

Introducing gender issues into universities’ general education curriculum

Feminists have asserted that gender is a sensitive issue for everyone because everyone has a gender and is a gendered subject, so every individual has gendered attributes (Hsiao and You, 2004). Gender also has a critical effect on the social construction of identity, humanity and subjectivity (Biklen and Pollard, 2001). Gender roles define relationships between people of the same sex and the opposite sex and also affect intimate interpersonal relationships, including those with family members and lovers. Therefore, gender identity is an important reference factor for interpersonal relationships and gender is a subjective issue that must not be ignored (Hsiao and You, 2004).

In terms of the development of gender-equal education in Taiwan, women’s movements in Taiwan have had an increasing impact since the 1990s and the education system promotes gender equality. The media engages in frequent discussions on gender and gender film exhibitions, female author exhibitions and book clubs for mothers offer abundant opportunities for gender discourse (Bih, 2004).

In June 2004, The Gender Equality Education Law was passed by Legislative Yuan. After the implementation of the Gender Equality Education Law, gender-equal education has become institutionalized and various universities have begun to introduce gender-related courses. Article 17 of the Gender Equality Education Law stipulates that “universities and colleges should widely plan gender studies-related courses and schools should develop curriculum planning and evaluation methods that are consistent with gender equality.” Article 18 of the law states that “the compilation, review and selection of school textbooks should conform to the principles of gender-equality education; the content of the textbooks should reflect the historical contributions and life experiences of different genders in a balanced manner and present a diverse gender perspective.” However, universities use different curriculum plans and designs to promote gender-equal education and to address gender issues (Wei and Fang, 2012).

The names of some common gender-related courses, such as Sexual Relations, Gender Relations, Gender and Law, Multiple Gender Identity, Feminism, Gender and Popular Culture, Gender Thinking and Introduction to Gender Studies show that there is an impetus to establish sex/gender awareness in education. One of the most important objectives of gender-equal education is the achievement of dual educational effects socially, culturally, and at the level of school and family through education. Gender-equal education seeks to reduce the negative aspects of gender bias and to eliminate gender discrimination and oppression and promotes the positive aspects of gender equality and gender diversity. The goal of this education is to establish a society that is not restricted by any gender roles, gender expectations, or gender stereotypes (Tasi, 2008).

Therefore, to reduce gender prejudices in university students, to eliminate gender discrimination and oppression, to develop students’ awareness of gender equality and to promote gender diversity, some universities offer general education courses on gender issues. The General Education Centre of National Taiwan University (2019) has established a reference index to allow general education curricula to achieve the concepts and goals of general education, one of which is diversity. The content of this curriculum should broaden students’ horizons, eliminate discrimination based on gender, ethnicity, and class, eliminate cultural prejudice and cultivate a mindset that respects and recognizes diverse differences between people. Therefore, in the domain of Citizenship and Social Analysis—one of the seven major components of National Taiwan University’s general education—a general course on gender issues was introduced that focuses on topics, including sexual relations, gender relations, gender and law and “Single Literature, Single City, Single Movie.”

The aim of the General Education Centre of the National Taiwan Normal University (2019) is to offer general education that enables students to understand the different social contexts of individuals from different ethnic groups, religions and genders and to understand the different values that are retained by each group. Students are encouraged to increase their awareness of the social implications that are associated with each gender group and to integrate gender-related perspectives into their education. Therefore, the General Education Centre formulated general courses to address gender-related issues, such as Gender Identity, Feminism, Gender and Popular Culture, Gender Thinking, Introduction to Gender Studies, Gender, Global Markets and Development, Gender Relations and Education, and Sex/Party and Body.

The General Education Centre of Daye University (2019) has introduced gender-related courses, such as Gender and Society. These initiatives demonstrate the increasing importance of gender issues and the impetus to integrate gender-related courses into the general education curriculum of some universities. These universities aim to increase students’ gender awareness to allow gender groups to coexist harmoniously. The goal is to eliminate gender discrimination, prejudice and oppression from campuses so that a peaceful society can be achieved.

Gender equality is an international issue and a universal value, the impact of which is registered internationally, as well as locally. National policies have been implemented to ensure gender equality and to safeguard human rights on campus. Gender-related courses in universities can be developed into general education centers to allow the concept of gender equality to take root and flourish in universities and create a safe and peaceful university campus (Chen, 2012).

The relationship between general education and gender education in Taiwanese universities warrants study because general education promotes gender education in Taiwan. Except for a few teachers in the Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, feminist theory and other studies on gender have mostly come from general education centers. This phenomenon can be attributed to specific historical facts. The initial curriculum planning of general education centers meant that numerous courses that are related to gender and feminism were launched to attract students’ interest in learning and to raise concerns over gender issues on university campuses (Yin, 2013).

Gender-related courses are highly valued in the general education centers of some universities. These courses are critical to the harmonious coexistence of gender groups in Taiwan.

Examples of the incorporation of gender issues in universities’ general courses

As the goal of the international community every modern citizen should have knowledge of law and gender equality(Su, 2006). Correspondingly, the course, Gender and Law, was established. In addition to introducing the legislative background and reasons for passing relevant bills and the introduction of important provisions and concepts, the course focuses on pertinent topics. This course provides students with the opportunity to discuss gender-related laws and issues in different groups, in order to enhance their legal literacy and gender awareness. Su made recommendations for the design of the curriculum and for teaching practice to allow general curriculum educators in domestic colleges and universities to improve the teaching content and methods for general education. Gender awareness is important for students (Su, 2006).

Tang and Cheng (2010) used action research to examine how feminist teaching can be applied in university general education. Lecturers assume the standpoint of respecting students’ personal experience at the outset and then dismantle the idea of gender being binary. They work toward constructing a knowledgeable society and assist students to develop and cultivate gender sensitivity through participatory learning by discussion and dialog. A teaching atmosphere of respect, equality and sharing that is emphasized by feminist teaching allows students to identify and empathize with different gender issues and political views, recognize gender diversity and enhance their awareness of gender equality. Awareness of gender equality is important for university students (Tang and Cheng, 2010).

Liu, Tasi, Ou and Huang (2011) studied the influence of the media. Through the course “Gender and Media Culture,” students learn to identify the correctness of gender-related content that is conveyed by media materials and to use multiple media as educational materials to better assimilate their life experience to transform its content and integrate gender awareness. This is an effective aid for gender education, so the curriculum also focuses on increasing the diversity of students’ gender perspectives.

Liu and Tasi (2013) studied students’ opinions on marriage customs, pregnancy and giving birth and some students highlighted their experience of breaking traditional customs, but this world view was not maintained for the custom of funeral sacrifice. Many customs have gradually evolved but funeral sacrifice customs still reveal gender differences. Folk conventions and traditional customs concerning funeral sacrifices and the paperwork for funerals often promote male superiority and the inferiority of women because many of the concepts are degrading for women. However, efforts have been made to increase students’ awareness of gender equality and to create a classroom atmosphere of mutual respect to allow genders to coexist peacefully with each other.

In summary, general education courses on gender studies have become increasingly popular in universities in recent years. In the past, the courses were limited to only Gender Relations and Women’s Studies, but the course offerings now include Gender and Law, Gender and Society, and Gender and Customs, which increases the diversity of general education courses. Teachers from different fields introduce various gender-related issues to students from various perspectives to allow university students to develop the ability to think critically about these issues. The effect of gender differences on individuals and on society at large has been the subject of much study in the gender research community and related educational fields (You, 2009). However, the success of gender-equal education depends on how this subject is taught. Gender-equal education should increase students’ awareness of gender equality and establish a classroom atmosphere of mutual respect that enables genders to coexist peacefully. This study examines the teaching of gender issues through the general curriculum of Taiwanese universities, where gender-related courses are critical for the harmonious coexistence of genders.

Teaching gender issues in the general curriculum of Taiwanese universities

In 1997, the Republic of China’s Ministry of Education established the Gender Equality Education Committee and passed the Gender Equality Education Law to promote substantive equality in terms of gender status, to eliminate gender discrimination, to safeguard human dignity and to cultivate and establish educational resources to promote gender equality. In terms of gender-related research and the ever-changing social atmosphere, higher education should focus on making breakthroughs in gender education, encouraging discussion of gender issues by teachers and students through effective curriculum design and constructing knowledge of gender issues by incorporating the views of all genders, rather than those of the dominant gender. The implementation of gender-equal education courses involves several challenges (Lin 2019): (a) teachers must maintain a neutral and flexible attitude when teaching, (b) teachers must incorporate their own values and gender awareness into their teaching, (c) teachers must ensure that gender issues that are discussed are aligned with international developments, and (d) teachers must integrate gender issues into their teaching and determine the best teaching philosophy.

This study examines the teaching of gender issues in the general curriculum in Taiwanese universities to increase students’ awareness of gender equality. A review of related studies (Belenky et al., 1997; Bih, 2003; Chang, 2000; Fang, 2001; Lin, 2008; Lin, 2013; Liu et al., 2012; Noddings, 1998; Pan, 1998; Tsai, 1998; Wen, 1998; Yang, 2005) suggests methods to develop a harmonious coexistence for genders as follows.

Teaching should be devoid of gender discrimination

Teachers should use appropriate methods to enhance learners’ knowledge and values because teachers should guide students’ learning. Therefore, the selection of appropriate teaching methods based on learning principles is critical. Teachers should also ensure that their teaching is devoid of gender discrimination. Teachers should avoid assuming a dominant position in the classroom and work toward inculcating humane values in students. They should guide students to respect different genders and develop a friendly learning atmosphere (Chang, 2021; Pan, 1998; Tsai, 1998).

Gender awareness for teachers

Gender consciousness is an important concept that is often an element of gender-equal education. The awakening or enlightenment of teachers’ gender consciousness is a critical component of related research. Gerson and Peiss (1985) noted that not all educators have gender consciousness. Gender consciousness should be a continuation of the movement for gender equality. There are three types of gender consciousness: gender awareness, female/male consciousness and feminist/antifeminist consciousness. Gender awareness is necessary for the development of the latter two (Bih, 2003). Therefore, teachers must develop gender consciousness and avoid gender blindness. When choosing teaching materials, teachers must be mindful of gender stereotypes to avoid selecting gender-insensitive teaching content and be aware of their own gender bias and missed opportunities to appropriately teach gender issues. Therefore, teachers must be gender-sensitized: they must attach value to gender issue and they must select relevant teaching materials (Lin, 2013).

Consideration of gender differences in the teaching field

Feminism is influenced by poststructuralism, postmodernism, queer theory and research by people of color. This movement emphasizes differences between people and challenges the idea of universal truth. Feminist discourses often advocate the recognition of diversity and differences. To achieve this, it is necessary to identify groups, such as black and lesbian women, who have lost their voices in the traditional Western discourses on feminism. However, in education, the emphasis is on the voices of students who are weak in the face of teachers’ authority (Chang, 2000).

Teachers should consider their students’ opinions on gender differences. The American scholar, Gilligan explored moral issues using a different approach. She begins the discourse from a woman’s standpoint. Later, Noddings (1984) proposed a feminist approach to care ethics (ethics of care) and their implications for moral education. She used interpersonal encounters to define the interaction between promises and responses to establish specific situational ethics at the micro level that emphasize interpersonal relationships and affective communication (Fang, 2001; Noddings, 1998). Later, Belenky et al. (1997) determined whether women have unique cognitive learning styles. This issue has promoted extensive and enthusiastic discussions and has highlighted the relationship between gender and learning. Gender differences are important in the teaching field so teachers must recognize gender differences in their teaching practice.

Implementation of reverence for justice in the teaching field

The origins of the concept of justice in Western political philosophy can be traced back to the political discourse of ancient Greece. The earliest and most comprehensive discussion of justice was offered by Plato (approximately 427–347 BC), who asserted that justice is the sum of virtues that reconcile wisdom and courage. Plato also identified the virtue of temperance to explain how justice can be sought if one performs one’s duties and respects mutual contracts and norms (Wen, 1998).

More recently, Rawls noted that justice is a primary value in the social system and advocated the remedial role of justice to actively address societal inequalities and ensure that everyone is treated equally (Lin, 2008). Therefore, teachers should actively address inequality at a very early stage, so that every student is treated the same, regardless of gender. Teachers should implement the concept of justice in teaching practice and respect different genders to develop a friendly learning atmosphere and develop the harmonious coexistence of genders.

Increasing students’ awareness of gender equality

The establishment of a gender-equal society requires every member of the society to advocate gender equality. Therefore, when teachers teach general courses on gender issues, they should seek to enhance students’ gender sensitivity and increase their understanding of gender equality. Liu et al. (2012) introduced Gender Traits: Masculinity/Sissy, Gender and Customs, Gender and Space, Gender and Career and Gender and Parenthood into curriculum planning. Each of the five topics were taught using a cooperative learning method that focuses on class reading and discussion. Thereafter, lecturers were invited to deliver keynote speeches to increase students’ understanding of the topics. Participating in activities such as pride parades, theater appreciation at the annual meeting of the Equality Education Association, visits to Taiwan’s Gender Equality Education Association, women’s bookstores and Jing-jing Bookstore and attending women’s film festivals have promoted students’ gender sensitivity and raised their awareness of gender equality.

Fostering a teaching atmosphere of mutual respect

Education emphasizes the humanity of people and opposes their objectification. Therefore, teachers should not materialize students or view them as animals without human feelings. If a teacher treats students as unintelligent and interacts with them as objects, and not as people, then the education that is imparted will be disrespectful toward the students. Liberation is based on the presence of freedom. The core requirement of liberation is the liberation of people from objectification. Therefore, teachers should respect students’ free will and allow students to make their own decisions. If a teacher objectifies students, they are in danger of treating them as individuals to be manipulated (Shih, 2013).

To give respect is to consider the other party’s position or opinion. Being considerate of others is known in psychology or social work practice as “role replacement,” by virtue of which an individual no longer views the world from their own interests and viewpoints. Therefore, cultivating respect for others requires the obliteration of self-centeredness and consideration of other people’s interests and opinions. Respecting others can only be achieved if a mind is open. Individuals who show respect, think about others, are not too self-centered and have open minds (Yang, 2005).

To respect students, teachers must focus on enhancing students’ self-esteem, deepening their understanding and appreciation of others in society and strengthening their care for other humans. Respect encompasses respecting oneself and respecting others, such as groups and cultures that are different from one’s own. Therefore, teachers should respect students of different genders when teaching gender-related general courses. They should create a respectful teaching atmosphere in which students can learn to respect themselves and others, including people from different genders and other groups.

Reflections and Conclusion

Reflections

The last decade has witnessed a continuing decline in formerly coherent value systems and increasing individualization in modern Western society. The autonomous development of personal value orientations and the ability to reflect on values are now more important. The tendency toward globalization has also broadened the cultural spectrum in which many people live and society has become more diverse, so gender issues are also more prominent in society (Schuitema et al., 2008).

Taiwan has been deeply influenced by traditional patriarchal ideas and gender issues have not received the attention they deserve, so gender inequality exists in different elements of society, such as marriage, family, work, law, political participation, education and personal safety. Gender discrimination has also led to a neglect or violation of women’s basic rights.

Today, gender equality is a critical international concern. Taiwan’s women’s empowerment movement has flourished since 2000 and participants have worked hard to seek gender equality for women. The government and civil society have actively promoted the protection of women for many years so considerable progress has been made. The development and promotion of gender-equal education in Taiwan has achieved a critical milestone with the passing and implementation of gender-equality laws in Taiwan’s education system at all levels.

In the globalized era of the twenty-first century, advances in science and technology and the enrichment of prevailing knowledge mean that higher education must be reformed throughout Taiwan to match current international trends. To ensure premium standards, education authorities have designed numerous assessment criteria to evaluate schools’ merit and performance. These quantitative indicators can be used as objective criteria to assess a university’s standard, but in practice, these criteria mean that many critical qualities that cannot be quantified are ignored, so a humanistic spirit must be developed (Huang, 2009).

A humanistic spirit is a universal force that is manifested in the pursuit, maintenance and safeguarding of human dignity, value and potential (Guo, 2009). A humanistic spirit is critical for college students so some universities try to accomplish this goal through general education. The dignity, value and potential of different genders is safeguarded by incorporating gender-related courses so this study addresses the teaching of gender-related courses in the general curriculum of universities and notes the implications for teaching practice to create a gender-sensitized and safe university campus.

Conclusion

This study promotes the incorporation of gender issues into general courses in Taiwanese universities. The development of gender inequality to equality in Taiwan has mostly been accomplished by the innovation of laws. Gender equality is an important element of general education in Taiwan’s universities. Four examples are given to support the arguments and six suggestions are provided for teaching gender issues in Taiwanese universities.

Education entails the elimination of gender discrimination and prejudice through education, enrichment of gender-equal education resources and the promotion of gender equality to establish a harmonious society that is devoid of oppression. Gender equality is the core of gender-equal education. Gender equality is closely related to human rights: especially the relationship between women’s human rights and economic development (Wu and Lin, 2009). A review of related literature gives the following recommendations for the teaching of gender issues in universities’ general curricula: (a) teaching must be devoid of gender discrimination, (b) gender awareness for teachers, (c) consideration of gender differences in the teaching field, (d) implementation of reverence for justice in the teaching field, (e) increasing students’ awareness of gender equality, and (f) fostering a teaching atmosphere of mutual respect.

By implementing these recommendations, teachers can create a teaching atmosphere that is devoid of gender discrimination so teachers must cultivate gender awareness and actively recognize gender differences in the classroom. They should also ensure that justice is implemented in the teaching environment and that students respect gender equality to create a respectful teaching atmosphere.

These interventions create a gender-equal learning environment that allows teachers and students to have a learning environment that is neither discriminatory nor oppressive, which allows learning and growth in a humanized learning atmosphere and develops a harmonious coexistence between genders in Taiwan.