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Abstract

The importance of lifelong learning has been recognized for many years and consequently many countries, disregarding their geographical location, differences in education systems and traditions, have adopted their lifelong learning policies to develop the lifelong learning system. The goal of the present comparative research is to study the comprehension of the term lifelong learning in one European country (Latvia) and one Asian country (Thailand), analyse the policies introduced, and single out priorities and the main challenges in the implementation of lifelong learning policies in each country. The paper proposes some examples of best practice in implementation of lifelong learning in Thailand and Latvia. The best practices of implementation of lifelong learning policies and strategies in each local area of the country, particularly in rural areas, are provided as a best practice of Thailand. One of the challenges that Latvia is facing at the moment in lifelong learning is how to decrease the level of early school leavers (aged 18–24). The best practice of Latvia provides an example of a possible solution for this challenge. The comparative research discovers that although the two countries have different history, traditions and they are located in geographically different areas, there are similarities in their lifelong learning policy and they can learn from each other how to best implement lifelong learning policy.

Keywords

Lifelong learning lifelong learning policy challenges best practice

Introduction

The Asia–Europe (ASEM) Education and Research Hub for Lifelong Learning, launched during the Copenhagen Conference in 2005, is an official network for university cooperation in lifelong learning research between Asia and Europe. It aims at promoting cooperation among Asian and European countries in conducting evidence-based cross country comparative research in order to contribute to academic field, workplace-learning, policy improvements and enhance lifelong learning. The Hub creates a platform for dialogue between researchers and education policy makers. It has five research networks uniting more than 100 researchers from Asia and Europe, senior representatives of 36 universities in its University Council and senior officials from 22 ministries of education, as well as five flagship international organizations (ASEM Education and Research HUB for Lifelong Learning, 2014).

ASEM Education and Research Hub Network 4 ‘National Strategies for Lifelong Learning’ has created a forum among European and Asian countries for presenting and exchanging knowledge, ideas and experiences of lifelong learning policies and practices. The network members represent the following countries: Australia, China, Germany, Japan, Korea, Latvia, Philippines, Thailand, United Kingdom and Vietnam (National LLL Strategies, 2014). During 2011–2013 Network 4 conducted research analysing policy documents, regulations and statistical data regarding the lifelong learning situation in their countries. The study comprised evaluation of the following: conceptual framework for lifelong learning in the membership countries, institutionalization of lifelong learning, governance and financing system, research on the lifelong learning and its capacity, the participation in lifelong learning, policy priorities in lifelong learning, the main obstacles and challenges to develop lifelong learning, and best practices in promoting lifelong learning.

This paper attempts to make a comparison between the lifelong learning situation in Thailand and Latvia focusing on the conceptual framework of lifelong learning in each country, its institutionalization and governance system, national strategies and policies for lifelong learning, and offers a best practice example of implementing lifelong learning initiative in the country.

The Republic of Latvia, founded on 18 November 1918, considered to be the pearl of the Baltic States, is one of the European Union member states located in north-eastern Europe on the east coast of the Baltic Sea. The neighbouring countries are Estonia, Russia, Byelorussia, Lithuania and across the Baltic Sea – Denmark, Sweden and Finland. Its area is 64 589 sq. km or 24 937 sq. miles. The capital city is Riga, which was designated the European Cultural Capital of 2014. Since ancient times Latvia has been at the crossroads between East and West, North and South. Therefore, Latvia has developed as a multi-cultural, multi-religious and multi-lingual country (Getting to know Latvia and Latvians, 2010; Welcome to Latvia, 2011). The population of Latvia is 2.024 million (54.2% females, 45.8% males). The average age of the population is 42.1 years (38.9 years for males, 44.9 for females). The largest nationalities are Latvians (1.238 million or 61.2%), Russians (26.3%), Byelorussians (3.5%), Ukrainians (2.3%), Poles (2.2%) and others (4.5%) (Demography, 2012, 2013). The education level of the population aged 15 and over is as follows: 23.1% of population have higher education (out of them 64.6% females, 35.3% males), 30.2% – vocational secondary or vocational education, 23.8% – general secondary education, 18.7% basic education, and 4.2% have not acquired basic education (Results of 2011 Population Census in Brief, 2012).

Thailand, formerly known as Siam, is officially called the Kingdom of Thailand. Thailand is located in Southeast Asia. It is bodered by Burma and Laos in the north, the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia in the south, Laos and Cambodia in the east, and the Andaman Sea and the south of Burma in the west. The country is a constitutional monarchy, headed by King Rama IX, who having reigned since 1946, is the world’s longest serving current head of state. Thailand has never been under colonialism. The total area of the country is 513,000 sq. km or 198,000 sq. miles. Bangkok is the capital city and the political, commercial, industrial and cultural hub. The total population is around 65 million and about 75% of them are ethnically Thai while 14% are Thai Chinese. The main occupation is agriculture. The official language is Thai and the main religion is Buddhism. Compulsory education was instituted in the 1920s. Nine years basic education, which includes six years primary education and three years early secondary education, is compulsory for all school children. After that school graduates can further their study to higher secondary education and university. For the working age group, the population is served by non-formal education and informal education (An Introduction to Thailand, 2005; Keyes, 2013).

Definition and concept of lifelong education and lifelong learning

The goal of the present comparative research is to study the comprehension of the term lifelong learning in one European country (Latvia) and one Asian country (Thailand), analyse the policies introduced, and single out priorities and the main challenges in implementation of lifelong learning policies in each country.

In Thailand, the importance of lifelong learning was recognized many years ago as it has been reflected in the national policies and development plans in every period since 1940. The concept of lifelong learning formally existed in the National Education Plan in 1977 (Office of National Education Commission, 1976). After that, lifelong education became more well-known again in 1999 when the National Education Act, 1999 (Office of National Education Commission, 1999) was promulgated. The Act proposed the philosophy of lifelong education as a principle and framework for organizing the whole education system of the country. According to this Act, the education system is being reformed towards lifelong learning processes and goals. Most recently, the Non-formal and Informal Education Promotion Act, 2008 (Office of Non-formal and Informal Education Promotion, 2008) and the Reformed National Education Plan, years 2009–2016 (Office of National Education Commission, 2010) were launched. They focus on quality lifelong learning for all.

A wish to learn and improve one’s knowledge and competences is part of Latvian traditions as well. The popular Latvian proverb ‘Live and learn’ means: the longer we live, the more we learn, the more experienced we become. In Europe, the term lifelong learning became one of the key success milestones already in 2000 by adopting ‘A Memorandum on lifelong learning’ (2000). In Latvia, the term lifelong learning is comparatively new. The lifelong learning concept became topical after Latvia regained independence in 1991 and joined the European Union (EU) in 2004. Comprehensive discussions about lifelong learning started in Latvia in 2005. Within the scope of the national programme, seven projects were implemented: one at national level and six at regional level. At national level, the National Strategy for Lifelong Learning (Basic guidelines for lifelong learning 2007–2013, 2006; in this paper referred to the English text as Lifelong Learning Policy 2007–2013, 2007) and its implementation programme (Programme for 2008–2013 for Implementation of Lifelong Learning Policy 2007–2013, 2007) were worked out. At regional level, action plans for the development of lifelong learning in each region of the country were adopted. The Strategy since then has become the main national policy planning document of lifelong learning in Latvia.

The concept of lifelong education in Thailand is similar to the concept given by renowned educators, such as Cropley (1977), Dave (1975), Faure et al. (1972) and Lengrand (1975), and to the concept of UNESCO (1968) which has been accepted in many countries. The National Education Act, year 1999, defines lifelong education as ‘a combination of all kinds and all forms of education – formal education, non-formal education and informal education, with the aim for developing quality of life of people continuously throughout their lives’ (Office of National Education Commission, 1999). The definitions of lifelong education, formal education, non-formal education and informal education were publicized to the education providers and those expected to receive the education.

The approach adopted in the Lifelong Learning Strategy of Latvia is similar to that of Thailand and it implies the promotion of individual’s personal growth, individual’s self-development in every life stage and in any life sphere, enhancing people’s initiative and adaptation abilities as well as reaching social integration, employment, and active civil participation. It stresses the increasing importance of non-formal education and informal learning alongside the complementary formal education. The Strategy defines lifelong learning as ‘an education process during the whole life of an individual that is based on changing needs to acquire education, skills, experience in order to increase or change their qualification in accordance with the demands of the labour market and their own interests and needs. Lifelong learning comprises non-formal learning and formal education, develops inborn abilities together with new competences’ (Lifelong Learning Policy 2007–2013, 2007: 4). However, in the Strategy the term learning is translated into Latvian as education; thus, it does not reveal the process of learning and gives rise to more associations with formal education. Only recently a trend to use the term learning not education in the context of lifelong learning has been observed in Latvia. Thus, Latvia is shifting from the comprehension of lifelong education to the comprehension of lifelong learning.

Similarly, in recent years in Thailand, the term lifelong learning has been introduced and used more and more often. In Thailand, the terms lifelong education and lifelong learning are regarded as having similar meanings (Sungsri, 2012). In fact, lifelong education is defined similarly to lifelong learning. The term lifelong education is usually used when looking at education organizers or providers of education. This involves the understanding that education needs certain forms of provision and services. The term lifelong learning is often used when looking at the learners, those who are to gain benefits from educational activities. The core of this concept is the belief that learning is started by the learners or occurs within the learners themselves.

To summarize, the concept of lifelong learning in Thailand and Latvia is similar: lifelong learning is interpreted as learning life long and it comprises formal and non-formal education and informal learning. In both countries recently a shift towards associating lifelong learning with the process of learning, not only formal education, has been observed.

Institutionalization and governance system of lifelong learning

The first official education introduced in Thailand was formal education. The first school was established for the public in 1884 (Sununchai, 2008). Since then, formal education has been developed to cover primary education, secondary education and tertiary education and they are available across the country. The main responsible organization for primary and secondary education is the Office of Basic Education Commission. The Office of Higher Education Commission is responsible for tertiary education. In 1940, the Adult Education Division was established (Sununchai, 2008). After that, the scope of activities provided was extended more; it was upgraded to be the Department of Non-formal Education and then the Office of Non-formal and Informal Education Promotion Commission respectively. The Office has networks from national level to local levels. At regional level, there are 5 regional centres (one for each region). At provincial level, there are 77 provincial centres and at district level, there is a district centre in every district across the country (Sungsri, 2003). They provide non-formal and informal education for every age group of after school age people such as out of school youth, working age groups and elderly people. Non-formal education provided includes three main groups of activities:

Basic and general non-formal education. They include literacy programmes and basic education programmes equivalent to primary education, lower and upper secondary education in formal school education.

Short-term and long-term vocational training in various fields, such as, mechanics, welding, ceramics, metal carving, household electricity, cooking, hair dressing, dress making, etc. Local occupations for income generating in each community are emphasized.

Provision of knowledge and information for quality of life improvement, such as, health and hygiene, basic law, how to produce better crops, how to set up a village co-operative unit, prevention of drug misuse, values and ethics, environmental pollution, roles and rights of citizens in a democratic society, etc. (Sungsri, 2012).

For informal education, some examples are: providing knowledge and information through different kinds of media such as radio, television, newspapers, etc., and providing various forms of learning sources, such as, museums, local libraries, community recreational centres, arts and craft centres, village news tower, herbal gardens, etc. (Sungsri, 2012).

Formal education has long traditions in Latvia, too. The first school in Latvia (Riga Dome School) was founded in 1211 by Christian missionaries from Germany. The first public school for the children of burghers and house-owners of Riga City was established in 1353. The first school using the Latvian language for instruction was founded in the 16th century (Anspaks, 2003). Nowadays, the education system of Latvia comprises formal, non-formal and informal learning. Formal education comprises pre-school, basic (general basic education and vocational basic education), secondary and higher education. Adult education is a constituent part of the lifelong education system and is provided in formal programmes and non-formal and informal courses. Lifelong learning comprises special interest education as well. Special needs education and vocational oriented sport, music and art education are also provided.

The education system of Latvia is administered at three levels – national, municipal and institutional. The Parliament (Saeima), the Cabinet of Ministers (CoM) and the Ministry of Education and Science of Latvia (MES) are the main decision-making bodies at the national level. The leading state administration institution in the field of education policy is the MES (Ministry, 2011). The MES collaborates with other ministries of Latvia, especially with the Ministry of Social Welfare, Ministry of Economics, etc., local governments/municipalities in providing education services. The MES has 11 subordinated institutions, such as, National Centre for Education, State Service of Education Quality, State Education Development Agency, Latvian Language Agency, etc. and they cooperate with more than 30 international organizations and professional associations. The MES cooperates also with 88 sports federations certified in Latvia as well as with non-governmental organizations (Subordinated institutions, 2012). In order to involve field experts and the population in solving between sector problems nine Advisory Boards have been established at the MES.

In order to manage an effective coordination of the lifelong learning system in the country, it was planned to establish a National Management Board of Lifelong Learning by 1 April 2008. Unfortunately, because of many reasons a special Board has not been established yet. However, the Cabinet of Ministers has appointed the MES (CoM Decree No.111 of 23 February 2007 ‘On the Guidelines for Lifelong Learning Policy 2007–2013’, 2009)) as the institution responsible for implementation of the Lifelong Learning Strategy. The MES is coordinating cooperation of state administration and local governments to implement the Lifelong Learning Policy. To ensure cross-sectoral coordination of all education levels in lifelong learning coordination, it was decided to involve also the Advisory Board ‘Education for Everyone’ in administering lifelong learning in Latvia. In accordance with Article 3 of CoM Regulations No.529 Regulations of the Consultancy Board ‘Education for Everyone’ (2003) the aim of the present Consultancy Board is to enhance cooperation and coordinated work of ministries, other state administration institutions, local governments, private sector, social and international organizations in order to promote: 1) lifelong learning development in Latvia and its accessibility to everyone; 2) inclusion of socially vulnerable and socially excluded populations in the society by offering versatile learning possibilities; and 3) developing people’s basic skills and key competences in accordance with their own needs as well as with the needs of the society.

To sum up, the education systems of Latvia and Thailand have both similarities and differences. Formal education of both countries comprises primary, secondary and tertiary education. In turn, adult education, special needs education and vocational oriented sport, music and art education are also components of the formal education system of Latvia. Regarding the system of governance, both countries administer the education system at national and regional levels. The comparative analysis shows that in Thailand the regional administration system is more developed than in Latvia, whereas in Latvia there are more institutions that cooperate with the Ministry of Education and Science of the country to implement the Lifelong Learning Strategy at the national level. The difference also lies in the main groups of activities. The issue of literacy, that is topical to Thailand, is not among the priorities of Latvia. Instead, in Latvia more focus is laid on providing learning opportunities that would promote employment possibilities for people and less focus is on enhancing people’s individuality. In Thailand development of people’s individuality is addressed in a systemic way.

National policies and strategies of lifelong learning in Thailand

From the National Education Acts and the National Education Plans such as the National Education Act, year 1999 (Office of National Education Commission, 1999), the Non-formal and Informal Education Promotion Act, 2008 (Office of Non-formal and Informal Education Promotion, 2008), the Reformed National Education Plan, years 2009–2016 (Office of National Education Commission, 2010), the Proposals for the Second Decade of Education Reform year 2009–2018 (Office of National Education Commission, 2009), the details of policy and strategies of lifelong learning in Thailand can be summarized as follows: 1)

Goal and objectives of lifelong education/learning.

Goal of lifelong learning: all Thai people are to receive quality lifelong learning. The main objectives are to provide people with adequate basic and necessary knowledge and skills which can be used as a tool for enhancing their occupations and for improving their life quality. They are encouraged to participate in promoting religion, culture, arts and local wisdom and will be proud of being Thai. They will be prepared to properly adjust themselves with the present society, a society that requires well-rounded, knowledgeable and lifelong learning people.

Strategies of lifelong education/learning.

The main strategies of lifelong learning in Thailand are:

– Each type of education should lay emphasis on both knowledge and ethics. The target groups should be provided with the integration of knowledge, which is necessary for learning and living, and high moral and ethical values together with public awareness.

– The process of teaching and learning has to be flexible and has to meet the needs, interests and diversity of the target groups.

– Learner-centred approach and the following skills are to be emphasized: problem-solving, thinking and analytical skills, managerial skills, skills on how to cope and solve emergency problems, and how to apply knowledge and experiences obtained to solve the problems.

– Facilitation and necessary support for learning should be made available so that the learning experience can take place at all times and locations.

– Both the government and the private sector should join hands to expand and support operation of various kinds of resource centres such as libraries, museums, arts centres, public gardens, botanical gardens, sports and recreational centres, etc.

– Local institutions should cooperate with other organizations, government and non-government agencies, religious organizations and people in each community to strengthen community bonds and relationships. This aspect of community involvement is expected to help the learning process and develop desirable activities.

– Decentralization of the authority of the Department at Ministry level to provincial, district and sub-district levels.

– Development of quality teachers and lifelong learning personnel.

– Implementation of more up-to-date technologies for lifelong education.

– Promoting and supporting lifelong learning networks for continuous co-operation and development.

– Providing several types of learning infrastructure in order for everyone to have access to learning activities conveniently and entirely.

– Gathering educational resources from all sectors in the society and making full use of them for providing lifelong education to serve individuals and communities throughout the country.

– Promoting knowledge and transfer and accreditation of experiences (between and among all forms of education: formal, non-formal and informal education) as well as the accreditation of the equivalency of the educational level.

– Establishing Sub-district Lifelong Education Centre in each sub-district across the country to provide various kinds of lifelong learning activities and services to all target groups.

For implementation of the lifelong learning policies and strategies, the Ministry of Education not only focuses on the responsibility of the agencies and departments concerned within the Ministry, but all sectors in the country have been encouraged to take part in organizing and supporting lifelong education (Office of Non-formal Education Administration, 2005). This is because of the size of target groups which are very big, especially the target groups of non-formal education. They cover all out of school people from over 15 years of age up to elderly people. They vary in terms of age, sex, occupations (e.g., farmers, industrial workers and general labourers), education background, interests, etc. They live in both urban and rural areas across the country. Through the efforts of governmental agencies, non-governmental agencies, local organizations and the networks, it is expected to extend educational opportunity to reach the target groups in every area. The priority is given to the disadvantaged groups: e.g., school age people who had to leave school earlier, low education workers, unemployed people, the poor, the disabled and those who live in remote areas.

National policies and strategies of lifelong learning in Latvia

The Lifelong Learning Strategy of Latvia has been developed, based on strategic, political and other kinds of planning documents, such as: 1) Latvian long-term economic strategy (2001); 2) National Development Plan for the years 2007–2013 (2006); 3) Long-term conceptual document ‘Latvian Growth Model: Human in the First Place’ (2006); 4) National Culture Policy Guidelines 2006–2015. National state. Long-term policy guidelines (2006); 5) National Lisbon Programme of Latvia for 2005–2008 (2005); 6) Basic guidelines of educational development for the years 2007–2013 (adopted on 27 September 2006). As Latvia has been a Member State of the EU since 2004, Lifelong Learning Policy in Latvia has been developed and is implemented in accordance with the corresponding regulations of the EU.

The basic principles of lifelong learning are: shared responsibility, efficiency, synergy of field policies, availability, comprehension and equality of the society.

The long-term target for lifelong learning is ‘to ensure education throughout the whole life according to the interests of inhabitants, as well as their abilities and socially economic development needs of the particular region’ (Lifelong Learning Policy 2007–2013, 2007: 8).

The stress is laid upon diminishing differences in socio-economic development of regions and promoting integration within and ensuring equality in providing qualitative lifelong learning for everyone. The aspect of lifelong learning access coincides with the one expressed in ‘Basic guidelines of educational development for the years 2007–2013’ (2006), but it is enlarged in the Strategy by making it wider and having a definite focus on social groups and their needs. Thus, the Lifelong Learning Policy 2007–2013 (2007) marks the shift from the existing education system to the lifelong learning system. The accent is laid on adult education as the weakest point of provision of education in Latvia. If previously adult education was oriented towards further education of employed people, the Strategy pays special attention to such target groups as people at the age of retirement, mothers of young babies, the unemployed, people in custody, adults in rural areas, people of different nationality and ethnic groups, people with special needs and early school leavers. This is a step from a comprehension of providing equal education to everyone towards the comprehension of versatility of education in accordance with various social groups. This comprehension offers a new approach oriented towards the needs and possibilities of education development (Muraskovska, 2012).

In order to attain the target of the strategic document ‘Europe 2020’ (2010) – to promote competitiveness and employment in general and in every Member State – the benchmarks for the lifelong learning in the EU, also Latvia, by 2020 are as follows:

at least 95% of children between the age of four and the age of starting compulsory primary education should participate in early childhood education;

the share of 15-year olds with insufficient abilities in reading, mathematics and science should be less than 15%;

the share of early leavers from education and training should be less than 10%;

the share of 30–34 year olds with tertiary educational attainment should be at least 40%;

on average at least 15% of adults (age group 25–64) should participate in lifelong learning.

The first two benchmarks are connected with formal education. The latter three aims are closely connected with providing and implementing adult learning.

Regarding the benchmark of decreasing the number of early school leavers by 10%, in 2011, in Latvia there were 228.9 thousand people aged 18–24 and 76.2 thousand of them had not acquired general education. In turn, 27.9 thousand of people aged 18–24 did not have general education and did not continue learning, which causes the greatest concern at the moment (Mūžizglītības mērķu sasniegšanas indekss, 2012). In 2012 there were 194.5 thousand people aged 18–24 and in 2013 there were 188.5 thousand (Demography 2012, 2013). The share of early school leavers aged 18–24 in 2010 was 12.9%, in 2011 11.6% and in 2012 10.6% (NBG.37. Data on Early school leavers, 2014). The statistical data show that the situation is improving and, presuming further initiatives are taken, the target of 10% of early school leavers by 2020 is achievable for Latvia.

Another target is that the rate of 30–34 year olds with tertiary educational attainment should be at least 40%. Although Latvia has a comparatively high number of students compared to the EU average, Latvia has set the target of attaining only 34.0–36.0% in 2020 which is achievable.

The benchmark of ensuring that at least 15% of adults aged 25–64 are involved in lifelong learning in Latvia is another cause of concern. Although the average participation rate in the EU increased by 1.9% between 2002 and 2010, the progress of the EU, including the progress of Latvia, is not sufficient to attain the aim by 2020. This indicator in Latvia in 2010 was only 5.0% (cf. 9.1% on average in the EU). Only 11 EU Member States from 27 attained the planned participation rate of 12.5% in 2010. There was no improvement in 2011 and 2012 as well. Although several measures were taken in Latvia to support the involvement of adult learners in lifelong learning, the result is very low in this aspect.

As previously-mentioned the Lifelong Learning Strategy in Latvia was adopted in 2006. It was revised in 2009. All documents in the field of lifelong learning in Latvia were worked out till 2013 and at the moment they are being updated and improved and new documents for the period 2014–2020 are being adopted. For example, ‘Basic guidelines of educational development 2014–2020’ was approved by the CoM of Latvia on 22 May, 2014 and has been into force since May, 2014. It is a mid-term education planning document that comprises all forms and stages of learning. It is also related to other significant mid-term and long-term planning documents in the field of culture, higher education and science, national identity, regional development, youth policy, population health, IT skills development, etc. that are in force till 2017–2020, depending on the exact document. The main principles are human-oriented education, education for sustainable development and education enhancing the development of a knowledge-based society. The goal of the new ‘Basic guidelines of educational development 2014–2020’ is qualitative and inclusive education for personal development, human welfare and sustainable development of the country (‘Izglītības attīstības pamatnostādnes 2014.-2020.gadam’, 2014). The main principles and the goal are closer to the values represented in Thai education and are more oriented towards individuals’ development than before. However, to ensure the principle of continuity the priorities in the new version of the Education guidelines are the same as before.

Best practice of lifelong learning in Thailand

The best practice of implementing lifelong learning policies and strategies in a local area of the country is provided as a best practice of Thailand (Jitwisuttiyarnkhun, 2012).

According to the lifelong learning policy and strategies proposed, every sector in Thai society is encouraged to take part in promoting lifelong learning. It has tried to introduce various methods and approaches in order to reach the goals set. One of the best practices is the case of Wat Chaimongkol, located in Ubol Ratchathani Province, the northeastern part of Thailand. The current abbot, Prakrue Jitwisuttiyarnkhun (Pra Jaturong Yarnutatmoe), is widely recognized as a senior monk in the region who is fully aware of social problems. He really went out of his way to study these problems and seek the ways to solve them. Together with various groups of people and organizations, he analysed the current situation and related problems. Then the methods and strategies for solving the problems were developed. Many of these activities were devised to help develop appropriate knowledge and skills of the villagers. The educational activities in this situation were conducted formally and informally. The benefits were to be for people of all ages.

Lifelong learning activities provided are: 1.

Formal education: a school, namely Prapariyattham Watchaimongkol, was set up to provide basic education for novices, children and other disadvantaged individuals.

Non-formal education: a centre was set up for lifelong learning for students and ordinary citizens living in nearby villages. The examples of activities conducted in the centre are: a)

Non-formal education as basic education.

Wat Chaimongkol and the Centre for Non-Formal and Informal Education joined forces to offer educational opportunities at elementary, lower secondary and higher secondary school levels to the disadvantaged and other needy children.

Non-formal education for social skills development.

The objectives for these activities were to foster the villagers’ skills in leading to a quality life pattern. The examples of the activities are ordination of novices and junior monks as seeds for religious growth, training for development of personal virtues and ethics for children and teenagers and training for language development for entering the ASEAN Community.

Wat Chaimongkol and its networks developed and conducted a training programme for children so that they would grow up as responsible adults. Nine virtues regarded as most important personal characteristics were taught. They were as follows: to be diligent, economize, be honest, have discipline, have proper manner, be clean, be united, be kind, and be grateful. Every year, approximately 200 individuals were involved in the training. Not only children, but working adults and the elderly also took part in the training.

Wat Chaimongkol and the Centre for Non-Formal and Informal Education provide English classes for the public. Participants include children, novices, monks and interested villagers.

Non-formal education for social development.

The objectives for this programme were: to offer learning activities for people so that these individuals would be equipped with necessary knowledge to live in the present society. Examples of the activities conducted are the ‘Falling Rain Project’, the Project of Making of Buddhist Lent Candles, and Religious Activities Centre.

It was discovered that there were about 3000 children in various districts who were left homeless and without parents. The abbot agreed to have 100 children per year ordained in Wat Chaimongkol and sent to school until they finished their Bachelor’s degree. Hope for a new life was then available for the children who were a part of the ‘Falling Rain Project’.

The objective of the Project of Making of Buddhist Lent Candles was to conserve the religious tradition of designing and making elaborate candles which was a tradition passed on from generation to generation.

Wat Chaimongkol was regarded as a focal point where local and nearby villagers get together to conduct their religious affairs. Participants used these opportunities to learn about their culture and to get to know one another.

Non-formal education for career development.

Together with local agencies, Wat Chaimongkol developed various short courses of vocational training to help people in the community earn extra income. The examples of this know-how were how to make soap, dish washing liquid, desserts, and flowers made from leaves in their village.

Informal education. Wat Chaimongkol was involved throughout the years in offering informal education in various forms to the public. Those living in nearby communities and visitors alike were able to gain valuable information and knowledge beneficial to their lives. Some of these activities were:

– Community White Radio Station – a unique radio station that was set up free of commercials to provide knowledge and useful information to the audience;

– Wat Library – a relatively modern library set up in Wat Chaimongkol as another important source of knowledge;

– Wat Exhibitions – exhibitions during the season for the enjoyment and personal development of the natives, novices and monks.

To sum up, there were a number of factors that could be considered important reasons as to why educational activities conducted at Wat Chaimongkol were one of the most successful cases in the country. They included: 1) well-organized public participation; 2) ability to mobilize necessary resources; 3) determination to give full devotion to public development; 4) support from government and private sectors; 5) appropriate use of public relations; 6) continuous operation of programmes; 7) networks of support; and 8) necessary financial support.

Best Practice of Lifelong Learning in Latvia

One of the challenges that Latvia is facing at the moment in lifelong learning is how to decrease the level of early school leavers (aged 18–24) from education. One of the ways of how to solve this problem is evening (shift) schools that have long traditions in Latvia and that offer both general secondary education and vocationally oriented secondary education. Evening (shift) schools offer education in evening groups, extramural groups, for people in custody and even a form of e-learning.

Evening (shift) schools in Riga were established already in the beginning of the 20th century; for example, in 1913 an evening school was established in Riga City centre and in 1922 an evening school was established in Pardaugava district of Riga City (Rīgas vakara ǵimnāzija, 2011; Rīgas 14.vakara (maiņu) vidusskolas vēsture, 2014). Evening (shift) schools became especially popular in Latvia after World War II, when they were established in all parts of the country. For example, in 1946 in Talsi, Kurzeme region; in 1948 in Preili, in Latgale region; and in 1947 in Gulbene, in Vidzeme region (Preiļu novada Vakara (maiņu) un neklātienes vidusskola, 2011; Projekts “Bibliotēka, arhīvs, muzejs - tilts no Gulbenes vēstures uz šodienu”, 2003; Talsu novada vakara un neklātienes vidusskola, 2014). In 2009, the first e-learning secondary school was established in Latvia which offers possibilities to acquire basic and general secondary education; Students from 18 countries all over the world study there (Kalniņa, 2010; Latvijas izglītība neklātienē, 2010).

Evening (shift) schools are established as independent education institutions or as special units in general education institutions. Maintenance of evening (shift) schools is a responsibility of local governments, they are financed from the budget of local governments or privately, and the education process is funded by the state. Evening (shift) schools are open to everyone who has need of them (Karnite, 2012).

Evening schools can be considered as the most flexible part of formal education in Latvia. Teachers of evening schools have adapted to work with students who have different levels of knowledge, skills and competences, different motivation, age and social status. An advantage of evening (shift) schools is teachers’ tolerance, understanding of their students and readiness to change (New trends in widening participation to learning: Latvia, 2003). It has to be emphasized that the majority of evening (shift) schools are the second chance education institutions in Latvia. The programmes for such schools are developed according to the demand (Country Report on the Action Plan on Adult Learning: Latvia, 2011).

The number of general evening (shift) schools in Latvia in 2013 was 25. In 11 of them the language of instruction was Latvian and in 14 it was Latvian/Russian. The total number of learners at the beginning of the study year 2012/2013 constituted 11 727. The number of evening classes by day schools in 2013 reached 69 (Statistics on the study year 2012/2013 by the MES, 2012).

In order to support evening (shift) secondary schools, amendments to the General Education Law (1999) were made in 2010 which stipulate that the primary task of evening (shift) schools is to ensure adult education by implementing general education programmes, providing for individuals who have not acquired or are not acquiring general secondary education at the moment in other educational institutions, and creating opportunities to acquire general secondary education. Evening (shift) secondary schools are also granted the right to implement basic education programmes and adult non-formal education.

In order to provide second chance education opportunities to everyone, educational institutions work at designing special programmes. For example, in 2009, 160 and, in 2010, 143 new evening (shift), extramural, social and pedagogical correction as well as special education programmes for different target audiences were licensed (Pieaugušo neformālās izglītības īstenošana pašvaldībās 2010.gadā, 2011). In 2012 in order to provide second chance education opportunities 139 education programmes for different target audiences were licensed (Izglītības un Zinātnes Ministrijas 2012.gada publiskais pārskats, 2013).

The research ‘Identification and Analysis of New Challenges and Solutions that Have Influence on Engagement and Reintegration of Adults (18–24 years) in Learning’ (2011–2013), conducted by the University of Latvia within the framework of ESF project ‘Support for education research’ sub-activity 1.2.2.3.2., deals with the analysis of the current practice and elaborates proposals based on evidence of how to increase the ratio of inhabitants (aged 18–24) with basic and secondary education, and what measures should be taken in order to attract adults (aged 18–24) to school to acquire basic and secondary education.

The survey on employees’ learning motivation (n = 105), conducted in 2011–2012, pointed to the main benefits of learning at an evening (shift) school. The respondents noted the usefulness of the following knowledge acquired, and skills and competences developed at the evening (shift) school: basic skills and knowledge (94.29% respondents), problem-solving skills (48.57%) and the skill of learning-to-learn (48.57%). Comparatively lower evaluation was given to specific professional knowledge and skills connected with their present occupation: specific professional work-related skills (8.57% of respondents evaluated them as very useful, 34.29% as useful, 28.57% as average) and the skills directly connected with their job duties (17.14% as very useful, 17.14% as useful, 42.86% as average and 20% as not useful at all). Regarding reasons for learning, at the top of the list were receiving of a certificate (20%), improving work quality (11.43%), upgrading knowledge (11.43%), and receiving the document verifying formal education (8.57%). Comparing the findings of the study with the trends in lifelong learning in Latvia, it is evident that one of the main reasons why people choose participating in lifelong learning is connected with their career and employment possibilities. This also coincides with the barriers and motivation to learn, as the main obstacles are job-related (too much work load at work), and the main motivation for learning is a wish to get a higher salary, a better post, etc. Thus, it can be summarized that lifelong learning is considered as a tool for improving one’s social and economic status in society, and, the survey showed that evening (shift) schools can be a successful option for second chance education for adults.

Conclusion

In Thailand and in Latvia the definition of lifelong education/learning is quite similar to the definitions given by other countries.

The National Education Act, year 1999 (Office of National Education Commission, 1999) is regarded as the framework of lifelong education of Thailand. After this Act was launched, the whole education system of the country was reformed in line with the principle of lifelong education. After that, a few national policies and plans were launched and they all focused on lifelong learning for all.

The main documents regulating lifelong learning in Latvia are the Lifelong Learning Strategy (Lifelong Learning Policy 2007–2013, 2007) and its implementation programme. At policy level, Lifelong Learning Strategy in Latvia marks a shift from institutionally centred education towards human centred education. The shift started with determining the target groups and their needs. In its continuation it is necessary to find suitable lifelong learning modules for every individual. In practice, lifelong learning in Latvia is perceived in correspondence with the necessities of people’s professional or individual needs. However, in order to create a versatile offer that corresponds to the development of holistic personalities, personal development oriented towards improving life quality has to become a functional principle. At present, lifelong learning is still more frequently associated with raising people’s professional competences and increasing employability than with the holistic development of people. The best practice example provided in this paper also showed that young people’s reasons and motivation for participating in lifelong learning were job-related and were connected with obtaining better career possibilities. However, life quality does not depend only on human material welfare. Positive human interaction and meaningful exchange of opinions and emotions are more significant than material welfare. The main target of lifelong learning must be enhancing the development of such relationships among people that would ensure developing the aforementioned values. In this respect, the example of best practice of Thailand included in this paper shows the necessity and success of organizing a versatile lifelong learning offer in regions. In the situation of Latvia, local cultural centres, libraries and rural basic schools might be the sectors that organize lifelong learning in the locality.

The lifelong education strategies of Thailand, as proposed in this paper, cover various aspects of administration and activities. The main strategies are, for example, increasing educational opportunities for universal access, strengthening participation of all segments in the society in education provision, decentralization of authority and resources to local areas, development of education quality, strengthening and raising the professional standard of teachers, and introducing different types of learning sources to allow learners to learn at their own pace. Under these strategies, government, non-government, private sectors and local organizations are encouraged to actively take part in providing lifelong education. Moreover, the target groups in each area were identified. Different approaches and methods were introduced in order to let the target groups obtain more learning opportunities. The case of Wat Chaimongkol is one of the best practices, showing how lifelong learning policies and strategies were implemented in a rural area by the local temple and the participation of local people.

Lifelong learning is a continuous process. The essence of lifelong learning is revealed in the fact that it is not possible to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary during one’s life by graduating from the formal education institution once and hoping that the education acquired would be sufficient for living life long. Learning as an episodic event cannot ensure life quality. Lifelong learning comprises educational, economic and social aims. In order to implement these aims in practice it is necessary to more deeply and thoroughly understand the problems and the advantages of lifelong learning at individual, group, organization, and society levels and carry out coordinated activities in order to make lifelong learning a reality.

Lifelong learning primarily is connected with the most significant values of humanity – freedom and democracy. Only an educated person may really be free and make considered decisions important to themselves and society, as well as take a responsibility for their own decisions and the consequences of these decisions. Here the quote of Confucius (551 BC–479 BC) is relevant: ‘If you think in terms of a year, plant a seed; if in terms of ten years, plant trees; if in terms of 100 years, teach the people’.

Footnotes

Funding

Acknowledgements

The authors of the paper would like to thank the Asia-Europe (ASEM) Education and Research Hub for Lifelong Learning, and particularly to the researchers of Network 4 ‘National Strategies for Lifelong Learning’ of the HUB for their useful suggestions made during the research process.

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Lifelong learning strategies and practice in Latvia and Thailand

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Definition and concept of lifelong education and lifelong learning

Institutionalization and governance system of lifelong learning

National policies and strategies of lifelong learning in Thailand

National policies and strategies of lifelong learning in Latvia

Best practice of lifelong learning in Thailand

Best Practice of Lifelong Learning in Latvia

Conclusion

Footnotes

Funding

Acknowledgements

References