Abstract
The paper deals first with the theory of photo-emission and the properties of photo-emissive cells. The various types of cathode which have been developed are described. Information is then presented on gas-filled cells and photo-electric multipliers. Mention is made of colour response, fatigue effects, dark current, noise, frequency response and associated circuits. The mechanisms and characteristics of various types of photo-voltaic and photo-conductive cells are then discussed, and some details of semi-conductor photocells are included. The applications of photocells to photometry, spectrophotometry, astronomy, radiation detection, recording of transient optical phenomena and in reflectometers, fluorometers, refractometers, colorimeters and turbidimeters are briefly discussed. Some infra-red photo-electric equipment is mentioned and finally a large number of miscellaneous photocell applications are listed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Hilsum
C.
, and
Ross
I. M.
, S.E.R.L. Tech. J. , 6 , 140 (1956 ). Also, Nature , 179 , 146 (1957 ).
2.
Kurnick
S. W.
, and
Zitter
R. N.
, J. App. Phys. , 27 , 278 (1956 ).
3.
Hilsum
C.
, S.E.R.L. Tech. J. , 7 , 214 (1957 ).
4.
Buck
T. M.
, and
McKim
F. S.
, Phys. Rev. , 106
904 (1957 ).
5.
Hertz
H.
, Ann. Phys. Lpz. , 31 , 983 (1887 ).
6.
Hallwachs
W.
, ibid. , 33 , 301 (1888 ).
7.
Elster
J.
, and
Geitel
H.
, ibid , 38 , 40 and 497 , (1889 ).
8.
Walsh
J. W. T.
, “Photometry,”
Constable (London ), 2nd edition (1953 ).
9.
Preston
J. S.
, and
Gordon-Smith
G. W.
, Brit. J. App. Phys. , 6 , 329 (1955 ).
10.
Sugawara
M.
, J. Phys. Soc. Japan , 11 , 169 and 172 (1956 ).
11.
Einstein
A.
, Ann. Phys. Lpz. , 17 , 132 (1905 ).
12.
Rodda
S.
, “Photo-Electric Multipliers,”
MacDonald (London ) (1953 ).
13.
Sommer
A.
, “Photo-Electric Tubes,”
Methuen (London ), 2nd edition (1951 ).
14.
Zworykin
V. K.
, and
Ramberg
E. G.
, “Photo-Electricity and its Application,”
Chapman & Hall (London ), 2nd printing (1950 ).
15.
Spangenberg
K. R.
, “Vacuum Tubes,”
McGraw-Hill (New York and London ) (1948 ).
16.
Lovell
B.
, “Electronics,”
Chapman & Hall (London ), 2nd printing (1951 ).
17.
Summer
W.
, “Photo-sensitors,”
Chapman & Hall (London ) (1957 ). (Includes a bibliography of 2,648 items.)
18.
Winch
G. T.
, Trans. Illum. Eng. Soc. (London) , 11 , 107 (1946 ).
19.
Seiler
E. F.
, Astrophys. J. , 52 , 129 (1920 ).
20.
Asao
S.
, and
Susuki
M.
, Proc. I.R.E. , 19 , 655 (1931 ); Proc. Phys. Math. Soc. of Japan
12 , 247 (1930 ).
21.
Görlich
P.
, Z.f. Phys. , 101 , 335 (1936 ); 109 , 374 (1938 ); 116 , 704 (1940 ).
22.
Widmaier
W.
, and
Engstrom
R. W.
, R.C.A. Review , 16 , 109 (1955 ).
23.
Sommer
A.
, Rev. Sci. Instrum , 26 , 725 (1955 ).
24.
Kluge
W.
, and
Schulz
A.
, Ann. Phys. Lpz. , 18 , 321 (1956 ).
25.
Slepian
J.
, U.S.A. Patent 145,026 (1919 ).
26.
Zworykin
V. K.
Ruedy
J. E.
, and
Pike
E. W.
, J. App. Phys. , 12 , 696 (1941 ).
27.
Malter
L.
, Proc. I.R.E. , 28 , 532 (1940 ).
28.
Lallemand
A.
, Vide. , 4 , 618 (1949 ).
29.
Zworykin
V. K.
, and
Rajchman
J. A.
, Proc. I.R.E. , 27 , 558 (1939 ).
30.
Pierce
J. R.
, Bell Lab. Record , 16 , 305 (1938 ).
31.
Khlebnikov
I. S.
, and
Sinytsin
P. A.
, J. Tech. Phys. U.S.S.R. , 10 , 1913 (1940 ).
32.
Kuwabara
O.
, J. Phys. Soc. Japan , 8 , 223 (1953 ).
33.
Wilson
R.
, J. Sci. Instrum , 32 , 152 (1955 ).
34.
Lenouvel
F.
, and
Daguillon
J.
, J. Phys. Radium , 15 , 287 (1954 ).
35.
Becquerel
E.
, C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris , 9 , 145 and 561 (1839 ).
36.
Grondahl
L. O.
, Science , 36 , 306 (1926 ), and J. American I.E.E., 46, 215 (1927 ).
37.
Preston
J. S.
Nature , 153 , 681 (1944 ).
38.
Nix
F. C.
, and
Treptow
A. W.
, J. Opt. Soc. America , 27 , 457 (1939 ).
39.
Bose
J. C.
, U.S.A. Patent No. 755, 840 (1904 ).
40.
Lange
B.
, Phys. Z. , 31 , 964 (1930 ).
41.
Gruetzmacher
M.
, Swiss Patent No. 147, 290 (1931 ).
42.
Fischer
F.
Gudden
B.
, and
Treu
M.
, Phys. Z. , 39 , 127 (1938 ).
43.
Smith
W.
, J. Soc. Tel. Eng. , 2 , 31 (1873 ).
44.
Nix
F. C.
, Rev. Mod. Phys. , 4 , 723 (1932 ).
45.
Case
T. W.
, Phys. Rev. , 15 , 289 (1920 ).
46.
Bate
G.
Bennett
H.
Hilsum
C.
, and
Starkiewicz
J.
, S.E.R.L. Tech. J. , 6 , 141 (1956 ).
47.
Starkiewicz
J.
Bate
G.
Bennett
H.
, and
Hilsum
C.
, Proc. Phys. Soc. B. , 70 , 258 (1957 ).
48.
Popov
P. S.
, Radiotekhnika i Elektronika , 1 , 1334 (1956 ).
49.
Simpson
O.
Sutherland
G. B. B. M.
, and
Blackwell
D. E.
, Nature , 161 , 281 (1948 ).
50.
Simpson
O.
, ibid. , 106 , 791 (1947 ).
51.
Burgess
R. E.
, Brit. J. App. Phys. , 6 , 385 (1955 ).
52.
Hilsum
C.
, S.E.R.L. Tech. J. , 7 , 214 (1957 ).
53.
Breckenridge
R. G.
Russel
B. R.
, and
Hahn
E. E.
, (Editors), “Photoconductivity Conference,”
John Wiley and Chapman and Hall (1956 ).
54.Mullard Ltd. , “Transistors for the Experimenter,” p. 17 , 3rd Reprint (1957 ).
55.
Shive
J. N.
, and
Zuk
P.
, Bell Lab. Record , 33 , 445 (1955 ).
56.
Winch
G. T.
, and
MacHin
F. C.
, Trans. Illum. Eng. Soc. (London) , 5 , 93 (1940 ).
57.
Kingslake
R.
, J. Opt. Soc. America , 28 , 323 (1938 ).
58.
Coblentz
W. W.
, and
Stair
R.
, J. Res. Nat. Bur. Standard , 33 , 21 (1944 ). See also, J. Opt. Soc. America, 36, 72 (1946 ).
59.
Naish
J. M.
, Nature , 179 , 269 (1957 .)
60.
Plymale
W. S.
, J. Opt. Soc. America , 37 , 399 (1947 ).
61.
Winch
G. T.
, Trans. Illum. Eng. Soc. (London) , 21 , 91 (1956 ).
62.
Whitford
A. E.
, and
Kron
G. E.
, Rev. Sci. Instrum. , 8 , 78 (1937 ). See also Electronics , 21, 98 (August, 1948 ).
63.
Hunter
R. S.
, J. Opt. Soc. America , 30 , 536 (1940 ).
64.
Moon
P.
, and
Laurence
J.
, ibid , 31 , 130 (1941 ).
65.
Ellinger
P.
, and
Holden
M.
, J. Soc. Chem. Ind. , 63 , 115 (1944 ).
66.
Fletcher
M. H.
White
C. E.
, and
Sheftel
M. S.
, Ind. Eng. Chem. Anal. Ed. , 18 , 204 (November, 1946 ).
67.
Parker
A. E.
, and
Oser
B. L.
, Ind. Eng. Chem. Anal. Ed. , 13 , 260 (1941 ).
68.
McFarlan
R. L.
, J. App. Phys. , 9 , 573 (1938 ).
69.
Muller
R. H.
, Ind. Eng. Chem. Anal. Ed. , 11 , 1 (1939 ). (Contains 260 references.)
70.
Rescorla
A. R.
Fry
E. M.
, and
Carnahan
F. L.
, Ind. Eng. Chem. Anal. Ed. , 8 , 242 (1936 ).
71.
Barnett
C. E.
, J. Phys. Chem. , 46 , 69 (1942 ).
72.
Krizek
V.
, and
Vand
V.
, Electronic Engng. , 18 , 316 (1946 ).
73.
McNickle
R. C.
, Electronics , 17 , 110 (September, 1944 ).
74.
Millikan
G. A.
, Rev. Sci. Instrum. , 13 , 434 (1942 ).
75.Electronics , 6 , 103 (April, 1933 ).
76.
Nordlander
B. W.
, Ind. Eng. Chem. , 19 , 518 (1927 ).
77.
Dobson
G. M. B.
, Proc. Phys. Soc. , 43 , 324 (1931 ).