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Abstract

Memoirs and autobiographies can be rich sources of real-world information for students in psychology classes. These resources have been used in adult-oriented abnormal psychology classes, but have yet to be explored for use in courses on abnormal child psychology. This manuscript reviews the use of memoirs and autobiographies in adult-oriented abnormal psychology classes and then explores the use of memoirs and autobiographies in abnormal child psychology classes. In the Appendix, lists of memoirs and autobiographies are provided that instructors can use as a resource in the selection of books for abnormal child psychology classes. Data are analyzed regarding undergraduate students’ opinions about the use of memoirs in an abnormal child psychology class and an investigation of learning outcomes for classes with and without assigned memoirs is provided. Overall, the use of memoirs and autobiographies appears to be a promising way of enhancing the teaching of abnormal child psychology.

Keywords

Abnormal child psychology memoirs autobiographies

A number of writers have recommended using memoirs and autobiographies to help enhance the teaching of abnormal psychology (Brien & McAllister, 2017; Deering, 2018; Fisher et al., 2015; Harrawood et al., 2013), but there has been little attention to using these techniques when teaching abnormal child psychology. The purpose of this manuscript is to provide resources for instructors who wish to utilize memoirs and autobiographies for teaching abnormal child psychology. Many of the memoirs and autobiographies included in the resource list (Appendix A) would also be relevant for use in teaching other topics (such as psychology of the family or positive psychology, since many of the listings include overcoming harsh family environments), but the main focus in this article is to expose instructors to the myriad options that are available in real-life written accounts of abnormal child psychology. Given that abnormal psychology, which often focuses on adults, is taught much more widely than abnormal child psychology (99% adult-oriented abnormal psychology versus 56% abnormal child psychology; Norcross et al., 2016), a review of adult-oriented abnormal psychology courses and the use of memoirs and autobiographies is in order first. This will be followed by a discussion of abnormal child psychology courses, and then the list of memoirs and autobiographies for abnormal child psychology courses will be provided. Finally, data that show the usefulness of memoirs in abnormal child psychology classes will be presented.

Teaching Adult-Oriented Abnormal Psychology

Abnormal psychology ranks as one of the most common courses taught in departments of psychology, with a recent survey finding that 99% of colleges and universities offer abnormal psychology at the undergraduate level (Norcross et al., 2016). Most abnormal psychology classes focus almost solely on adults, with perhaps a week or two of a 16-week semester devoted to children and adolescents (Fisher et al., 2015). For example, most of the well-established textbooks on abnormal psychology devote only one (Barlow, Durand, & Hoffman, 2018; Hooley et al., 2017; Kearney & Trull, 2018; Kring et al., 2016) or two (Nolen-Hoeksema & Marroquin, 2014; Oltmanns & Emery, 2014) chapters to child and adolescent psychopathology. Given the nature of diagnostic criteria where many diagnoses can be used across the lifespan (such as depression, most anxiety disorders, and most substance use disorders; American Psychiatric Association, 2013) and where underlying processes are discussed across the lifespan, such as with the National Institute of Mental Health Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) system (Insel, 2014), some abnormal psychology textbooks try to infuse developmentally informed research and case studies throughout the coverage of disorders (such as Beidel et al., 2017). However, it remains the case that much of the content and cases covered in most abnormal psychology classes focus on adults rather than children or adolescents.

In terms of the content, abnormal psychology textbooks nearly always include the core scholarly work in understanding mental disorders, such as providing diagnostic criteria, theoretical conceptualizations of abnormal functioning, and reviews of research on psychopathology, but the large majority also includes case studies of abnormal functioning (Fisher et al., 2015). The topics included in abnormal psychology texts lend themselves well to the inclusion of case studies because the case studies can help illustrate the scholarly material in an interesting and engaging manner.

There are also a number of collections of case studies of adult psychopathology that can be assigned in addition to the abnormal psychology textbook (e.g., Brown & Barlow, 2016; LeCroy & Holschuh, 2012; Meyer & Weaver, 2012; Oltmanns et al., 2015). These collections can be used to illustrate the human side of psychological disorders.

Case studies, however, are by definition written by someone other than the person experiencing the disorder (Banyard, 2000; LeCroy & Holschuh, 2012). Although case studies can be very helpful for illustrating diagnostic criteria and research findings, they often do not provide the personal and emotional nuances of experiencing a disorder. Banyard (2000) noted that the tone of a case study “is necessarily professional and detached” (p. 40). In addition, case studies by definition are relatively brief and therefore do not allow an in-depth coverage of the individual’s experiences of the mental disorder. For these reasons, a number of writers have recommended using book-length memoirs and autobiographies in adult-oriented abnormal psychology courses (Brien & McAllister, 2017; Harrawood et al., 2013; LeCroy & Holschuh, 2012; Norcross et al., 2013; Pollack, 2015).

Using Memoirs and Autobiographies in Adult-Oriented Abnormal Psychology Courses

There are a number of ways in which autobiographies and memoirs can be used to enhance students’ understanding of psychological disorders. For example, Norcross, Sommer, and Clifford (2001) noted that professors can include material from memoirs and autobiographies during lectures to illustrate different disorders. Memoirs and autobiographies can also be used as a primary text for a discussion section (Norcross et al., 2001). In addition, extra credit assignments can also be developed that allow students to read a memoir or autobiography and then either complete an evaluation form on the book or write a paper that integrates the author’s experiences with the research literature (Norcross et al. 2001).

The purposes of using memoirs and autobiographies in abnormal psychology classes are many. Memoirs and autobiographies provide interesting and engaging illustrations of the scholarly and empirical research that is provided in textbooks, thereby bringing the scholarly material to life (Norcross et al., 2001). Schwartz and Abell (2003) noted that using book-length autobiographies and memoirs can help students gain a deeper understanding of psychopathology. Relatedly, given that most large undergraduate classes in abnormal psychology do not offer a practicum component where students actually work with clients, Banyard (2000) noted that memoirs and autobiographies can be used as a proxy for practicum experience. She highlighted the need to connect course material to events in the real world, but since practicum experiences for undergraduates are often not possible, she argued that students could gain real-world knowledge by reading first-person accounts of mental disorders (Banyard, 2000).

Using memoirs and autobiographies may also reduce stigma about mental disorders and increase empathy for individuals who have experienced psychological problems (Corrigan & Shapiro, 2010; Maranzan, 2016). Hinshaw (2017) made a compelling argument for the need to decrease stigma toward individuals who have experienced psychological problems. In a related study, Penn et al. (2003) found that students who learned about severe psychopathology through first-person accounts in a documentary were less likely to blame individuals for their psychiatric disorder. Thus, it is likely that students will feel less judgmental about individuals who are experiencing psychopathology when they get to know the individuals in a more thorough manner. Most memoirs and autobiographies contextualize the experience of mental problems by providing a thorough history of the individuals’ experiences, or by illustrating personal, familial, and social struggles related to functioning. Thus, rather than just reading about diagnostic criteria and research studies, reading a memoir or autobiography can help students develop more compassion for those who experience psychopathology (Banyard, 2000).

From research and writing on the teaching of adult-oriented abnormal psychology, it is clear that memoirs and autobiographies can enhance students’ understanding of psychological disorders. For example, Norcross et al. (2001) conducted three studies where students in undergraduate abnormal psychology classes read a textbook and also read an autobiography written by a person who had experienced a mental disorder. Students selected the autobiography from an approved list and completed an evaluation of the autobiography after they read it. At the end of the semester, students were surveyed about the inclusion of the autobiography in the course. Evaluations were routinely positive, with students reporting that the use of the autobiography increased their understanding of the psychological disorder and the reactions by others to the psychological disorder. Norcross et al. concluded that assigning autobiographies can help increase students’ empathy for persons with psychological disorders and their families. Similarly, Ferrari (2016) used memoirs and case studies of celebrities with mental health problems to decrease stigma and increase help-seeking behavior within the context of an abnormal psychology class.

Overall, there is compelling evidence for the use of memoirs and autobiographies in adult-oriented abnormal psychology classes, and it stands to reason that the same benefits would occur in courses on abnormal child psychology.

Teaching Abnormal Child Psychology

For over four decades, scholars have advocated for teaching undergraduate courses on children’s psychological difficulties (Daehler, 1974; Gartner, 1984; Glenwick & Chabot, 1991). Despite these calls for change, the teaching of abnormal child psychology has lagged behind the teaching of adult-oriented abnormal psychology. In a survey of teaching patterns over 28 years, Lux and Daniel (1978) found that abnormal psychology was taught at 69% of the universities in 1947 in contrast to 15% of the universities where abnormal child psychology was taught that year. In 1975, the offerings increased up to 89% of universities offering abnormal psychology and 37% offering abnormal child psychology. Twenty years later, Perlman and McCann (1999) found that 97% of doctoral universities offered abnormal psychology but abnormal child psychology was only offered at 17% of the universities. In 2004, a survey of 121 colleges and universities found that abnormal psychology was taught at the undergraduate level in 100% of the colleges and universities, whereas abnormal child psychology was only taught at 40.5% (Phares & Han, 2004). Six years later, Stoloff and colleagues (2010) found that undergraduate abnormal psychology was offered in 98% of colleges and universities, whereas abnormal child psychology was only offered at 29% of colleges and universities. More recently, Norcross et al. (2016) found that 99% of the undergraduate programs they surveyed offered abnormal psychology but only 56% offered abnormal child psychology. Thus, although the specific methodologies in these studies have yielded slightly varying results, the disparity between teaching adult-oriented versus child-oriented abnormal psychology has remained consistent. These numbers show that abnormal child psychology is taught less frequently than adult-related abnormal psychology, but there are compelling reasons to teach abnormal child psychology.

One of the most compelling reasons to teach abnormal child psychology comes from the epidemiological data on children’s psychological functioning. It is estimated that between one in four and one in five youth will experience a mental disorder with severe impairment by the time that they are 18 years old (Merikangas et al., 2010). Thus, psychological disturbance in childhood and adolescence is vast, yet few children and adolescents who experience mental health problems ever receive treatment for these problems (Merikangas et al., 2011; Thurston et al., 2018).

Another compelling reason to teach abnormal child psychology at the undergraduate level relates to psychological functioning in adulthood. There is mounting evidence that the majority of adult psychopathology has at least some genesis in childhood and adolescence (Tolan & Leventhal, 2017). Thus, students need to understand psychological functioning in youth before they can fully understand psychological functioning in adulthood.

For those who are interested in teaching a course in abnormal child psychology, there are a number of resources. In particular, there are a number of textbooks (Carr, 2016; Mash & Wolfe, 2019; Parritz & Troy, 2018; Phares, 2020; Schneider, 2014; Weis, 2018; Wicks-Nelson & Israel, 2015; Wilmshurst, 2017) and case books (Barnhill, 2014; Kearney, 2017; Wilmshurst, 2018; Wohlfarth & Morgan, 2017) that are available for teaching abnormal child psychology at the undergraduate level. There are also a number of edited volumes (Beauchaine & Hinshaw, 2017; Flessner & Piacentini, 2017; Mash & Barkley, 2014) that could be used for advanced undergraduate seminars on developmental psychopathology. Overall, there are many scholarly resources for teaching abnormal child psychology at the undergraduate level. Like courses in adult-oriented abnormal psychology, courses in abnormal child psychology could also be enhanced significantly by including memoirs and autobiographies.

Using Memoirs and Autobiographies in Abnormal Child Psychology Courses

There are many reasons to use memoirs and autobiographies to help students learn about child psychopathology. Similar to adult-oriented abnormal psychology classes, the use of memoirs and autobiographies in abnormal child psychology classes could help make research on child psychopathology more interesting and engaging (Norcross et al., 2013), could help students understand abnormal child psychology in more depth (Schwartz & Abell, 2003), could serve as a proxy for real-world practicum experience (Banyard, 2000), could decrease the likelihood that students would over-generalize from their own personal experiences with child psychopathology (Banyard, 2000), could help students learn about abnormal child behavior from a dimensional perspective (Norcross et al., 2001), and could help decrease stigma toward children’s psychological disorders (Banyard, 2000).

From a pedagogical perspective, having students read memoirs and autobiographies of child psychopathology can help them retain the information in both the short and long term (Banyard, 2000). Similar to the use of memoirs and autobiographies in adult-oriented abnormal psychology classes, instructors of abnormal child psychology could use memoirs and autobiographies in many ways, including using the material to enhance lectures, as readings in addition to the regular textbook, as readings for a discussion section, and as part of an extra-credit assignment (Norcross et al., 2001).

Instructors may allow students to find their own books, or they may choose to have specific books assigned for all students to read, or they may have lists of books from which students can choose a memoir or autobiography to write a paper or to do a class project. If instructors wish to recommend memoirs and autobiographies to their students, and if they do not already have first-hand knowledge of books in this genre, they can consult a number of resources as well as considering the books noted in the list below.

In their book, Self-Help That Works: Resources to improve emotional health and strengthen relationships (4th ed.), Norcross and colleagues (2013) updated a list of autobiographies in a number of content-based chapters, but no autobiographies were listed in the chapters on Child Development and Parenting, Teenagers and Parenting, or Families and Stepfamilies. There are, however, memoirs and autobiographies placed in chapters on specific disorders (such as anxiety disorders, depression, eating disorders, schizophrenia, and substance abuse) that cover the childhood experiences of individuals with these disorders. Some of those books are included in the list below.

Another excellent resource comes from the field of library science. In his impressive book called Remembered Childhoods: A guide to autobiography and memoirs of childhood and youth, Long (2007) included more than 2800 books that included at least 50 pages describing the author’s youth before the age of 21. Books date back to over 300 years ago and cover nearly every topic of human existence, including slavery, the Holocaust, growing up abroad, being involved in sports, having different careers, and being involved in politics. The large majority of entries are not relevant to a course in abnormal child psychology, but the chapter entitled “Coping with challenges of body and mind: Diseases, disabilities, and conditions” as well as the chapter entitled “The darker side of childhood: Outcasts, violence, abuse, poverty, and other traumas” include relevant books, some of which are included in the list below.

Based on these resources, internet searches, students’ suggestions, and my own reading of memoirs and autobiographies, a list of memoirs and autobiographies that are relevant for abnormal child psychology courses is provided in Appendix A. Books are included in the list if they:

Are non-fiction

Deal with psychological symptoms or challenging experiences before the age of 18

Are written either by the person who experienced the symptoms/events themselves or by a parent or sibling who reflects on the focal child as well as their own personal experiences

Not self-published

No other formal criteria were used for inclusion or exclusion from this list. Unlike the criteria used by Sommer et al. (1998) where only first-person accounts were explored, the list below includes both first-hand and close second-hand accounts by a parent or sibling of the focal child as long as writers also reflect on their own experiences with the child’s disturbance (thereby making the book a first-hand account of their own experiences). Note that second-hand accounts by therapists, special education teachers, or journalists are not included below because those books rarely include the writer’s personal reflections, emotions, and behaviors related to the focal child. Also unlike the criteria used by Sommer et al. (1998), authors were not necessarily institutionalized for their psychological difficulties, nor did they need to have received a formal diagnosis. Because most textbooks on abnormal child psychology deal with risk factors related to the development of psychopathology (such as parental psychopathology, physical and sexual abuse, harsh environments), books that cover these topics are also included even if the individual did not meet diagnostic criteria for a disorder. Finally, one of the biggest differences between the books listed below and ones that might be used in adult-oriented abnormal psychology classes is that the childhood experiences are often written in retrospect. When individuals are writing their own first-hand accounts of childhood psychopathology or overcoming risk factors in childhood, they are nearly always looking into the past, sometimes the distant past, to write about these accounts. Although there are some examples of older adolescents writing about their current experiences or those from the recent past (e.g., Taylor, 2007), the large majority of first-hand accounts of child psychopathology are written retrospectively because youth (troubled or not) rarely publish books. This pattern of retrospective accounts is less pervasive when parents are the authors, since they have the opportunity to write a book and have it published while the child is still a child (e.g., Ellison, 2010; Sheff, 2008). But whether the accounts are retrospective in nature or based on information while the child is still a child, the books listed below should help students of abnormal child psychology learn more about the experiences of children and families dealing with childhood psychopathology and risk factors for the development of psychopathology.

Note that there has been an explosion of memoirs and autobiographies written since the early 1990’s. According to Long (2007), many writers attribute the abundance of books in this genre to the success of books such as Kaysen’s (1993) Girl, Interrupted and McCourt’s (1996) Angela’s Ashes. Zinsser (2009) also noted that the success of books like This Boy’s Life (Wolff, 1989), A Drinking Life (Hamill, 1994), and Liar’s Club (Karr, 1995) were central to the increase in memoirs and autobiographies written about troubled and troubling childhoods. With the proliferation of memoirs and autobiographies that focus on troubled childhoods, psychologist Michael Vincent Miller (1994) suggested in the New York Times Book Review, “Couldn’t someone please write an autobiography or memoir in which no memories of abuse turn up because there was none?” (p. 12). The huge number of childhood memoirs and autobiographies listed in Long’s (2007) book that do not deal with troubled childhoods is proof that many youths do grow up in loving, functional families. For the purposes of using memoirs and autobiographies for a course in abnormal child psychology, however, it is likely more useful to focus on those youth with disordered or troubled childhoods.

A list of high-quality memoirs and autobiographies that are appropriate for use in abnormal child psychology classes is included in Appendix A. Interestingly, the majority relate more to risk factors than to formal diagnostic criteria. The list is by no means exhaustive, but it is meant to serve as a resource for teaching abnormal child psychology. The list is broken into general categories of disorders that are consistent with the structure of many abnormal child psychology textbooks. In addition, because there is a wealth of information on factors that put youth at risk for the development of psychopathology (Tolan & Leventhal, 2017), a section on risk factors is included. Because risk factors are often written about in relation to protective factors (such as a strong and stable grandparent or a supportive teacher who reduces the likelihood of the child developing a disorder), comments will be made about protective factors where relevant.

Note that many memoirs and autobiographies could be listed in multiple categories because of the comorbidity of symptoms or because of multiple problems that were encountered in the person’s history (such as sexual abuse and depression). Books are only listed in the primary category for which they are relevant, but written comments point to other topics for which the book may also be relevant. Note that the headings for the sections in the Appendix are general and do not imply that the individual was diagnosed formally nor accurately with that disorder.

Hopefully, the list in Appendix A will provide instructors with many resources that can be shared with students who are interested in learning more about abnormal child psychology through memoirs and autobiographies. Given these resources for incorporating memoirs into the teaching of abnormal child psychology, the question remains as to how students react to this type of assignment and whether the use of memoirs is related to students’ learning outcomes. Two brief studies were completed to address these questions.

Empirical Investigations of the Use of Memoirs in Abnormal Child Psychology

In order to assess students’ experiences and learning outcomes with the use of memoirs in an abnormal child psychology class, two brief studies were completed after receiving approval from the Institutional Review Board. For both Study 1 (students’ enjoyment of memoirs) and Study 2 (learning outcomes), participants were undergraduate students in abnormal child psychology classes at a large public university in the southeast of the United States. These face-to-face courses include readings from a textbook, three exams, a brief oral presentation, class discussions, and two brief one-page writing projects. All students in Study 1 and half of the students in Study 2 read a memoir related to abnormal child psychology from a pre-approved list and completed a five-page paper based on the memoir. No students were involved in both studies.

In Study 1, there were 149 participants who were mostly psychology majors (84.5%) and mostly female (81.2%). The average age was 22.4 years old (SD = 5.36) and the sample was diverse regarding race/ethnicity (54.4% White/Not Hispanic, 24.8% Hispanic/Latino/Latina, 7.4% Asian American, 6.7% African American, 3.4% multiracial or biracial, and 3.3% other). This sample is comparable to psychology majors at this university.

Participants completed a demographic measure at the beginning of the semester and completed a brief evaluation form at the end of the semester. The evaluation form asked, on a scale of 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree), how much the memoir increased their understanding of the topic it covered, how much the participant enjoyed reading the book, and how much they would recommend the book to others.

Overall, participants highly endorsed the use of memoirs in the abnormal child psychology course. Specifically, they reported that they strongly agreed that the book increased their understanding of the topic that it covered (4.29 out of 5, SD = .96), that they enjoyed reading the book (4.45 out of 5, SD = .90), and that they would recommend the book to others (4.32 out of 5, SD = 1.0). These data support the use of memoirs when teaching abnormal child psychology, at least from the students’ perspectives.

In Study 2, archival data were used for abnormal child psychology classes that did or did not include an assignment to read a memoir. Courses were all taught by the same professor, with more recent courses including the memoir assignment. Although this design is not as strong as random assignment, there is no reason to believe that students taking the class earlier rather than later would vary in student outcomes.

In Study 2, there were 132 participants, 40 of whom read a memoir and 92 of whom did not read a memoir for their abnormal child psychology class. Because this was an archival study with no demographic data, participants’ demographics cannot be reported. But like in Study 1, this undergraduate class tends to have many more females than males, from a great range of racial/ethnic diversity.

Students’ final grades were compared based on percentages, where 90%–100% is an A, 80%–89% is a B, 70%–79% is a C, and so on. Based on a t-test, students who read a memoir showed significantly higher final grades (M = 89.83; SD = 8.61) than did students who did not read a memoir (M = 82.32; SD = 10.59), t(130) = 3.95, p < .001, Cohen’s d = 0.778. These data support the use of memoirs in abnormal child psychology classes when considering students’ learning outcomes.

Thus, from both Study 1 and Study 2, there is evidence that the use of memoirs when teaching abnormal child psychology is well-received by students and is associated with stronger learning outcomes. Future investigations in this area can be improved by having more rigorous empirical criteria for selection of memoirs (e.g., a formal rating system including more than one rater) and a greater diversity of memoirs from across the globe. In addition, empirical studies in this area would be improved by investigating students’ learning outcomes via random assignment.

Summary

Overall, there are compelling reasons to teach abnormal child psychology and to include memoirs and autobiographies in these courses to help bring the scholarly material alive. Not only will these books help make didactic course material become more relevant and meaningful, but these books can be as interesting and compelling as good fiction.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Vicky Phares

Author Biography

Vicky Phares (B.A., University of California, Los Angeles; M.S. University of Wyoming; Ph.D. University of Vermont) is a professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of South Florida, where she has taught since 1992. In 1995, she won the USF Teaching Incentive Program Award, in 2003 she won the USF University of South Florida Presidential Excellence Award, and in 2011, she won the USF Graduate Faculty Mentor Award. She has written extensively in the field of abnormal child psychology, with a focus on paternal, maternal, and child functioning. She currently runs the undergraduate internship program at USF.

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Using Memoirs and Autobiographies To Enhance the Teaching of Abnormal Child Psychology

Abstract

Keywords

Teaching Adult-Oriented Abnormal Psychology

Using Memoirs and Autobiographies in Adult-Oriented Abnormal Psychology Courses

Teaching Abnormal Child Psychology

Using Memoirs and Autobiographies in Abnormal Child Psychology Courses

Empirical Investigations of the Use of Memoirs in Abnormal Child Psychology

Summary

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

ORCID iD

Author Biography

References