Intermittent fasting, in which individuals fast on consecutive or alternate days, has been reported to facilitate weight loss and improve cardiovascular risk. This review evaluates the various approaches to intermittent fasting and examines the advantages and limitations for use of this approach in the treatment of obesity and type 2 diabetes.
KyrouIKumarS. Weight management in overweight and obese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Br J Diabetes Vasc Dis. 2010; 10: 274-83.
2.
DayC. The rising tide of type 2 diabetes. Br J Diabetes Vasc Dis. 2001; 1: 37-43.
3.
DayC. Metabolic syndrome, or What you will: definitions and epidemiology. Diabetes Vasc Dis Res. 2007; 4: 32-8.
4.
PetersenJLMcGuireDK. Impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glucose — a review of diagnosis, clinical implications and management. Diabetes Vasc Dis Res. 2005; 2: 9-15.
5.
UnwinNShawJZimmetP. Impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glycaemia: the current status on definition and intervention. Diabetic Med. 2002; 19: 708-23.
6.
KosakaKNodaMKuzuyaT. Prevention of type 2 diabetes by lifestyle intervention: a Japanese trial in IGT males. Diabetes Res Clin Prac. 2005; 67: 152-62.
7.
PanXRLiGWHuYH. Effects of diet and exercise in preventing NIDDM in people with impaired glucose tolerance. The Da Qing IGT and Diabetes Study. Diabetes Care. 1997; 20: 537-44.
8.
SartorGScherstenBCarlstromS. Ten-year follow-up of subjects with impaired glucose tolerance: prevention of diabetes by tolbutamide and diet regulation. Diabetes. 1980; 29: 41-9.
9.
TuomilehtoJLindstromJErikssonJG. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. New Engl J Med. 2001; 344: 1343-50.
10.
PerreaultLPanQMatherKJ. Effect of regression from prediabetes to normal glucose regulation on long-term reduction in diabetes risk: results from the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study. Lancet2012; 379: 2243-51.
11.
EH SchwarzP. Preventing type 2 diabetes – how to proceed?Br J Diabetes Vasc Dis. 2011; 11: 158-60.
12.
ThomasJA2ndAntonelliJALloydJC. Effect of intermittent fasting on prostate cancer tumor growth in a mouse model. Prostate Cancer and Prostatic Dis. 2010; 13: 350-5.
13.
BuschemeyerWC3rdKlinkJCMavropoulosJC. Effect of intermittent fasting with or without caloric restriction on prostate cancer growth and survival in SCID mice. The Prostate. 2010; 70: 1037-43. 9.
14.
HartmanALRubensteinJEKossoffEH. Intermittent fasting: A “new” historical strategy for controlling seizures?Epilepsy Research. 2012. doi:10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2012.10.011.
15.
SinghRLakhanpalDKumarS. Late-onset intermittent fasting dietary restriction as a potential intervention to retard age-associated brain function impairments in male rats. Age (Dordr). 2012; 34: 917-33.
16.
StreijgerFPlunetWTPlemelJR. Intermittent fasting in mice does not improve hindlimb motor performance after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma. 2011; 286: 1051-61.
17.
TajesMGutierrez-CuestaJFolchJ. Neuroprotective role of intermittent fasting in senescence-accelerated mice P8 (SAMP8). Exp Gerontol. 2010; 45: 702-10.
18.
BaHammamAAlrajehMAlbabtainM. Circadian pattern of sleep, energy expenditure, and body temperature of young healthy men during the intermittent fasting of Ramadan. Appetite. 2010; 54: 426-9.
19.
FroyOChapnikNMiskinR. Effect of intermittent fasting on circadian rhythms in mice depends on feeding time. Mech Ageing Dev. 2009; 130: 154-60.
20.
CarlsonAJHoelzelF. Apparent prolongation of the life span of rats by intermittent fasting. The Journal of nutrition. 1946; 31: 363-75.
21.
KarbowskaJKochanZ. Intermittent fasting up-regulates Fsp27/Cidec gene expression in white adipose tissue. Nutrition. 2012; 28: 294-9.
22.
HarvieMNPegingtonMMattsonMP. The effects of intermittent or continuous energy restriction on weight loss and metabolic disease risk markers: a randomized trial in young overweight women. Int J Obes. 2011; 35;714-27.
23.
HassaneinMM. Diabetes and Ramadan: how to achieve a safer fast for Muslims with diabetes. Br J Diabetes Vasc Dis. 2010; 10: 246-50.
24.
FarisMAKacimiSAl-KurdRA. Intermittent fasting during Ramadan attenuates proinflammatory cytokines and immune cells in healthy subjects. Nutr Res. 2012; 32: 947-55.
25.
ShehabAAbdulleAEl IssaA. Favorable changes in lipid profile: the effects of fasting after Ramadan. PloS one. 2012; 7: e47615. Epub 2012/11/01.
26.
ZareAHajhashemiMHassanZM. Effect of Ramadan fasting on serum heat shock protein 70 and serum lipid profile. Singapore Med J. 2011; 52: 491-5.
27.
KhanNBKhanMHShaikhMZ. Effects of Ramadan fasting on glucose levels and serum lipid profile among type 2 diabetic patients. Saudi Medl J. 2010; 31: 1269-70.
28.
NomaniMZHallakMHNomaniS. Changes in blood urea and glucose and their association with energy-containing nutrients in men on hypocaloric diets during Ramadan fasting. Am J Clin Nutrit. 1989; 49: 1141-5.
29.
DewantiLWatanabeCSulistiawati. Unexpected changes in blood pressure and hematological parameters among fasting and nonfasting workers during Ramadan in Indonesia. Eur J Clin Nutrit. 2006; 60: 877-81.
30.
FontanaLMeyerTEKleinS. Long-term calorie restriction is highly effective in reducing the risk for atherosclerosis in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2004; 101: 6659-63.
31.
FontanaLKleinSHolloszyJO. Effect of long-term calorie restriction with adequate protein and micronutrients on thyroid hormones. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006; 91: 3232-5.
32.
MeyerTEKovacsSJEhsaniAA. Long-term caloric restriction ameliorates the decline in diastolic function in humans. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006; 47: 398-402.
33.
SanzACaroPIbanezJ. Dietary restriction at old age lowers mitochondrial oxygen radical production and leak at complex I and oxidative DNA damage in rat brain. J Bioenerg Biomembranes. 2005; 37: 83-90.
34.
HeilbronnLKde JongeLFrisardMI. Effect of 6-month calorie restriction on biomarkers of longevity, metabolic adaptation, and oxidative stress in overweight individuals: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA2006; 295: 1539-48.
35.
LignotJ-HLeMahoY. A history of modern research into fasting, starvation and food inanition. In McCueMD (ed). Compariative Physiology of fasting, starvation and food limitation. Springer-Verlag, Berlin2012,17-23.
36.
McDonaldSD. Management and prevention of obesity in adults and children. CMAJ: Can Medl Assoc J2007; 176: 1109-10.
37.
LangAFroelicherES. Management of overweight and obesity in adults: behavioral intervention for long-term weight loss and maintenance. Eur J Cardiovasc Nurs. 2006; 5: 102-14.
38.
TsigosCHainerVBasdevantA. Management of obesity in adults: European clinical practice guidelines. Obesity Facts. 2008; 1: 106-16.
39.
KmietowiczZ. Obese patients get inadequate care before and after bariatric surgery, finds review. Br Med J2012; 345: e6890.
40.
StewartWKFlemingLWRobertsonPC. Massive obesity treated by intermittent fasting. A metabolic and clinical study. Am J Med. 1966; 40: 967-86.
41.
BirkenhagerJCHaakAAckersJG. Changes in body composition during treatment of obesity by intermittent starvation. Metabolism: clinical and experimental. 1968; 17: 391-9.
42.
BallMFCanaryJJKyleLH. Tissue changes during intermittent starvation and caloric restriction as treatment for severe obesity. Archives of internal medicine. 1970; 125: 62-8.
43.
VondraKRathRBassASlabochovaZ. Prolonged intermittent fasting in obese women. Effect on activity of energy metabolism enzymes, glycogen concentration, protein and DNA in skeletal muscle (author’s transl)]. Protrahovane intermitentni hladoveni u obeznich zen. Vliv na aktivity enzymu energetickeho metabolismu, koncentraci glykogenu, proteinu a DNK v kosternim svalu. Casopis lekaru ceskych. 1976; 115: 454-7.
44.
KlempelMCKroegerCMBhutaniS. Intermittent fasting combined with calorie restriction is effective for weight loss and cardio-protection in obese women. Nutrition J. 2012; 11: 98.
45.
ArguinHDionneIJSenechalM. Short- and long-term effects of continuous versus intermittent restrictive diet approaches on body composition and the metabolic profile in overweight and obese postmenopausal women: a pilot study. Menopause. 2012; 19: 870-6.
46.
DayCBaileyCJ. The hypocaloric diet in type 2 diabetes - déjà vu. Br J Diabetes Vasc Dis. 2012; 48-51.
47.
PedersenCRHagemannIBockTBuschardK. Intermittent feeding and fasting reduces diabetes incidence in BB rats. Autoimmunity. 1999; 30: 243-50.
48.
BelkacemiLSelselet-AttouGHupkensE. Intermittent fasting modulation of the diabetic syndrome in streptozotocin-injected rats. Int J Endocrinol. 2012; 2012: 962012.
49.
BatesHEKiralyMAYueJT. Recurrent intermittent restraint delays fed and fasting hyperglycemia and improves glucose return to baseline levels during glucose tolerance tests in the Zucker diabetic fatty rat–role of food intake and corticosterone. Metabolism: clinical and experimental. 2007; 56: 1065-75.
50.
LimELHollingsworthKGAribisalaBS. Reversal of type 2 diabetes: normalisation of beta cell function in association with decreased pancreas and liver triacylglycerol. Diabetologia. 2011; 54: 2506-14.
51.
HalbergNHenriksenMSoderhamnN. Effect of intermittent fasting and refeeding on insulin action in healthy men. J Appl Physiol. 2005; 99: 2128-36.
52.
TikooKTripathiDNKabraDG. Intermittent fasting prevents the progression of type I diabetic nephropathy in rats and changes the expression of Sir2 and p53. FEBS letters. 2007; 581: 1071-8.
53.
KrentzAJ. Type 2 diabetes and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: do they share common antecedents?Br J Diabetes Vasc Dis. 2002; 2: 370-8.
WildingJFinerN. Weight management and cardiovascular disease: implications of recent and ongoing clinical trials. Br J Diabetes Vasc Dis. 2008; 8: 170-6.
56.
WingRRKoeskeREpsteinLH. Long-term effects of modest weight loss in type II diabetic patients. Arch Intern Med.1987; 147: 1749-53.
57.
HenryRRWiest-KentTAScheafferL. Metabolic consequences of very-low-calorie diet therapy in obese non-insulin-dependent diabetic and nondiabetic subjects. Diabetes1986; 35: 155-64.
58.
WanRCamandolaSMattsonMP. Intermittent fasting and dietary supplementation with 2-deoxy-D-glucose improve functional and metabolic cardiovascular risk factors in rats. FASEB journal . 2003; 17: 1133-4.
59.
FontanaLVillarealDTWeissEP. Calorie restriction or exercise: effects on coronary heart disease risk factors. A randomized, controlled trial. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2007; 293: E197-202.
60.
KatareRGKakinumaYArikawaM. Chronic intermittent fasting improves the survival following large myocardial ischemia by activation of BDNF/VEGF/PI3K signaling pathway. J Molec Cell Cardiol. 2009; 46: 405-12.
61.
MattsonMPWanR. Beneficial effects of intermittent fasting and caloric restriction on the cardiovascular and cerebrovascular systems. J Nutrit Biochem. 2005; 16: 129-37.
62.
WanRAhmetIBrownM. Cardioprotective effect of intermittent fasting is associated with an elevation of adiponectin levels in rats. J Nutrit Biochem. 2010; 21: 413-7.
63.
BrownJE. Dysregulated adipokines in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes and vascular disease. Br J Diabetes Vasc Dis. 2012; 12: 249-54.
64.
DunmoreSJBrownJE. The role of adipokines in beta-cell failure of type 2 diabetes. J Endocrinol. 2013; 216: T37-45.
65.
KroegerCMKlempelMCBhutaniS. Improvement in coronary heart disease risk factors during an intermittent fasting/calorie restriction regimen: Relationship to adipokine modulations. Nutrit Metab. 2012; 9: 98.
66.
DaviesAREfthimiouE. Curing type 2 diabetes mellitus with bariatric surgery - reality or delusion?Br J Diabetes Vasc Dis. 2012; 12: 173-6.