Dietary fiber is widely recognized to have a beneficial role in overall health, but only at adequate levels (25 − 38 g/day for healthy adults). Wheat dextrin in particular is a soluble fiber that can easily be added to the diet and is widely used in the food industry. There is some debate about whether increased intake of soluble fibers leads to health benefits. This paper reviews the evidence regarding the physiological effects and potential health benefits of the addition of soluble dietary fibers, with specific reference to wheat dextrin, based on a search of PubMed. The evidence suggests that soluble fibers help to regulate the digestive system, may increase micronutrient absorption, stabilize blood glucose and lower serum lipids, may prevent several gastrointestinal disorders, and have an accepted role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. It is concluded that supplementation with soluble fibers (e.g. wheat dextrin) may be useful in individuals at risk of a lower than recommended dietary fiber intake.
CummingsJH: The effect of dietary fiber on fecal weight and composition. In: CRC Handbook of Dietary Fiber in Human Nutrition (SpillerGA, ed), 2nd edn.Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1993; pp 263–349.
2.
KleessenBSykuraBZunftHJ: Effects of inulin and lactose on fecal microflora, microbial activity, and bowel habit in elderly constipated persons. Am J Clin Nutr1997; 65: 1397–1402.
3.
VermorelMCoudrayCWilsD: Energy value of a low-digestible carbohydrate, NUTRIOSE®FB, and its impact on magnesium, calcium, and zinc apparent absorption and retention in healthy young men. Eur J Nutr2004; 43: 344–352.
4.
BlissDZGuenterPASettleRG: Defining and reporting diarrhea in tube-fed patients: What a mess!Am J Clin Nutr1992; 55: 753–759.
5.
NakaoMOguraYSatakeS: Usefulness of soluble dietary fiber for the treatment of diarrhea during enteral nutrition in elderly patients. Nutrition2002; 18: 35–39.
GiaccariSGrassoGTronciS: Partially hydrolyzed guar gum: A fiber as coadjuvant in the irritable colon syndrome. Clin Ter2001; 152: 21–25.
8.
BijkerkCJMurisJWKnottnerusJA: Systematic review: The role of different types of fibre in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. Aliment Pharmacol Ther2004; 19: 245–251.
9.
AllerRde LuisDAIzaolaO: Effects of a high-fiber diet on symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome: A randomized clinical trial. Nutrition2004; 20: 735–737.
10.
CoudrayCRambeauMFeillet-CoudrayC: Dietary inulin intake and age can significantly affect intestinal absorption of calcium and magnesium in rats: A stable isotope approach. Nutr J2005; 4: 29.
11.
de CassiaFreitas KAmancioOMNovoM Ferreira: Partially hydrolyzed guar gum increases intestinal absorption of iron in growing rats with iron deficiency anemia. Nutrition2003; 19: 549–552.
12.
JacksonKGTaylorGRJClohessyAM: The effect of the daily intake of inulin fasting lipid, insulin and glucose concentrations in middle-aged men and women. Br J Nutr1999; 82: 23–30.
13.
ChandaliaMGargALutjohannD: Beneficial effect of high dietary fiber intake in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med2000; 342: 1392–1398.
14.
DonazzoloYPelletierXCristianiI: Glycaemic and insulinaemic indexes of NUTRIOSE® FB in healthy subjects. Dietary Fiber 18–21 May 2003 [abstract].
15.
BrownLRosnerBWillettWW: Cholesterol-lowering effects of dietary fiber: A meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr1999; 69: 30–42.
StewartMLSavarinoVSlavinJL: Assessment of dietary fiber fermentation: Effect of Lactobacillus reuteri and reproducibility of short-chain fatty acid concentrations. Mol Nutr Food Res2009; 53: DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.200700523.
18.
ShamliyanTAJacobsDRJrRaatzSK: Are your patients with risk of CVD getting the viscous soluble fiber they need?J Fam Pract2006; 55: 761–769.
19.
PereiraMAO'ReillyEAugustssonK: Dietary fiber and risk of coronary heart disease: A pooled analysis of cohort studies. Arch Intern Med2004; 164: 370–376.
20.
MozaffarianDKumanyikaSKLemaitreRN: Cereal, fruit, and vegetable fiber intake and the risk of cardiovascular disease in elderly individuals. JAMA2003; 289: 1659–1666.
21.
WakaiKDateCFukuiM: Dietary fiber and risk of colorectal cancer in the Japan collaborative cohort study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev2007; 16: 668–675.
22.
BinghamSADayNELubenR: Dietary fibre in food and protection against colorectal cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC): An observational study. Lancet2003; 361: 1496–1501.
23.
PelucchiCTalaminiRGaleoneC: Fibre intake and prostate cancer risk. Int J Cancer2004; 109: 278–280.
24.
Institute of Medicine: Dietary, functional, and total fiber. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients). Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2005; pp 339–421.
25.
ShikanyJMWhiteGL: Dietary guidelines for chronic disease prevention. South Med J2000; 93: 1157–1161.
26.
MarlettJAMcBurneyMISlavinJL: Position of the American Dietetic Association: Health implications of dietary fiber. J Am Diet Assoc2002; 102: 993–1000.
27.
US Food and Drug Administration: Health claims: Soluble fiber from certain foods and risk of heart diseases. Code of Federal Regulations2001; 21: 101.81.
28.
ChoSSDreherML (eds): Handbook of Dietary Fiber. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2001.
29.
CummingsJHRombeauJLSakataT (eds): Physiological and Clinical Aspects of Short-Chain Fatty Acids. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
30.
ToppingDLCliftonPM: Short-chain fatty acids and human colonic function: Roles of resistant starch and nonstarch polysaccharides. Physiol Rev2001; 81: 1031–1064.
31.
WongJMde SouzaRKendallCW: Colonic health: Fermentation and short chain fatty acids. J Clin Gastroenterol2006; 40: 235–243.
VogtJAWoleverTM: Fecal acetate is inversely related to acetate absorption from the human rectum and distal colon. Hum Nutr Metab Res Comm2003; 133: 3145–3148.
34.
KhattakMMAK: Physiological effects of dietary complex carbohydrates and its metabolites role in certain diseases. Pak J Nutr2002; 1: 161–168.
35.
PasmanWWilsDSaniezM-H: Long term gastrointestinal tolerance of NUTRIOSE®FB in healthy men. Eur J Clin Nutr2006; 60: 1024–1034.
36.
TuohyKMKolidaSLustenbergerAM: The prebiotic effects of biscuits containing partially hydrolysed guar gum and fructo-oligosaccharides - a human volunteer study. Br J Nutr2001; 86: 341–348.
37.
OkuboTIshiharaNTakahashiH: Effects of partially hydrolyzed guar gum intake on human intestinal microflora and its metabolism. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem1994; 58: 1364–1369.
38.
American Dietetic Association: Position of the American Dietetic Association: Health implications of dietary fiber. J Am Diet Assoc1997; 97: 1157–1159.
39.
GibsonGRRoberfroidMB: Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: Introducing the concept of prebiotics. J Nutr1995; 125: 1401–1412.
40.
StephenAMCummingsJH: Mechanism of action of dietary fibre in the human colon. Nature1980; 284: 283–284.
41.
World Health Organization: Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation. 2003. Geneva, WHO, WHO Technical Report Series 916.
ElmadfaIWeichselbaumE (eds): Energy and nutrient intake in the European Union. European Nutrition and Health Report 2004. Forum Nutr. Basel: Karger, 2005, Vol 58, pp 19–46.
44.
VariyamJN: Factors affecting the macronutrient intake of US adults. Washington DC: US Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin Number 1901, April 2003.
45.
Van den HeuvelEGHMWilsDPasmanWJ: Dietary supplementation of different doses of NUTRIOSE® FB, a fermentable dextrin, alters the activity of faecal enzymes in healthy men. Eur J Nutr2005; 44: 445–451.
46.
GianniniEGMansiCDulbeccoP: Role of partially hydrolyzed guar gum in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. Nutrition2006; 22: 334–342.
BuddingtonRKWilliamsCHChenS-C: Dietary supplementation of neosugar alters the fecal flora and decreases activities of some reductive enzymes in human subjects. Am J Clin Nutr1996; 63: 709–716.
49.
JieZBang-YaoLMing-JieX: Studies on the effects of polydextrose intake on physiologic functions in Chinese people. Am J Clin Nutr2000; 72: 1503–1509.
50.
TakahashiHWakoNOkuboT: Influence of partially hydrolyzed guar gum on constipation in women. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo)1994; 40: 251–259.
51.
Van den HeuvelEGHMWilsDPasmanWJ: Short-term digestive tolerance of different doses of NUTRIOSE®FB, a food dextrin, in adult men. Eur J Clin Nutr2004; 58: 1046–1055.
52.
KurasawaSHaackVSMarlettJA: Plant residue and bacteria as bases for increased stool weight accompanying consumption of higher dietary fiber diets. J Am Coll Nutr2000; 19: 426–433.
53.
GibsonGRBeattyERWangX: Selective stimulation of bifidobacteria in the human colon by oligofructose and inulin. Gastroenterology1995; 108: 975–982.
54.
TomlinJReadNW: A comparative study of the effects on colon function caused by feeding ispaghula husk and polydextrose. Aliment Pharmacol Ther1988; 2: 513–519.
55.
AshrafWParkFLofJ: Effects of psyllium therapy on stool characteristics, colon transit and anorectal function in chronic idiopathic constipation. Aliment Pharmacol Ther1995; 9: 639–647.
56.
McRorieJWDaggyBPMorelJG: Psyllium is superior to docusate sodium for treatment of chronic constipation. Aliment Pharmacol Ther1998; 12: 491–497.
57.
BurtonRManninenV: Influence of psyllium-based fibre preparation on faecal and serum parameters. Acta Med Scand Suppl1982; 668: 91–94.
58.
DettmarPWSykesJ: A multi-centre, general practice comparison ispaghula husk with lactulose and other laxatives in the treatment of simple constipation. Curr Med Res Opin1998; 14: 227–233.
59.
PriorAWhorwellPJ: Double blind study of ispaghula in irritable bowel syndrome. Gut1987; 28: 1510–1513.
60.
HollowayLMoynihanSAbramsSA: Effects of oligofructose-enriched inulin on intestinal absorption of calcium and magnesium and bone turnover markers in postmenopausal women. Br J Nutr2007; 97: 365–372.
61.
AbramsSAGriffinIJHawthorneKM: A combination of prebiotic short- and long-chain inulin-type fructans enhances calcium absorption and bone mineralization in young adolescents. Am J Clin Nutr2005; 82: 471–476.
62.
TahiriMTressolJCArnaudJ: Five-week intake of short-chain fructo-oligosaccharides increases intestinal absorption and status of magnesium in postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Res2001; 16: 2152–2160.
63.
Scholz-AhrensKESchrezenmeirJ: Inulin, oligofructose and mineral metabolism - experimental data and mechanism. Br J Nutr2002; 87 (suppl 2): S179–S186.
64.
HaraHSuzukiTKasaiT: Ingestion of guar gum hydrolysates, a soluble fiber, increases calcium absorption in totally gastrectomized rats. J Nutr1999; 129: 39–45.
65.
RaschkaLDanielH: Mechanisms underlying the effects of inulin-type fructans on calcium absorption in the large intestine of rats. Bone2005; 37: 728–735.
66.
KatohKTsudaT: Effects of acetylcholine and short-chain fatty acids on acinar cells of the exocrine pancreas in sheep. J Physiol1984; 356: 479–489.
67.
MineoHHashizumeYHanakiY: Chemical specificity of short-chain fatty acids in stimulating insulin and glucagon secretion in sheep. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab1994; 267: E234–E241.
68.
WoleverTMJenkinsDJ: Effect of dietary fiber and foods on carbohydrate metabolism. In: CRC Handbook of Dietary Fiber in Human Nutrition (SpillerGA, ed), 2nd edn.Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1993; pp 111–152.
69.
WilliamsJALaiCCorwinH: Inclusion of guar gum and alginate into a crispy bar improves postprandial glycemia in humans. J Nutr2004; 134: 886–889.
70.
PrietoPGCancelasJVillanueva-PenacarrilloML: Short-term and long-term effects of guar on postprandial plasma glucose, insulin and glucagon-like peptide 1 concentration in healthy rats. Horm Metab Res2006; 38: 397–404.
71.
AspMLHertzlerSRChowJ: Gamma-cyclodextrin lowers postprandial glycemia and insulinemia without carbohydrate malabsorption in healthy adults. J Am Coll Nutr2006; 25: 49–55.
72.
WakabayashiSUedaYMatsuokaA: Effects of indigestible dextrin on blood glucose and insulin levels after various sugar loads in rats. J Jpn Soc Nutr Food Sci1993; 46: 131–137.
73.
WakabayashiSKishimotoYMatsuokaA: Effects of indigestible dextrin on glucose tolerance in rats. J Endocrinol1995; 144: 533–538.
74.
AndersonJWRandlesKMKendallCW: Carbohydrate and fiber recommendations for individuals with diabetes: A quantitative assessment and meta-analysis of the evidence. J Am Coll Nutr2004; 23: 5–17.
75.
SalmerónJMansonJEStampferMJ: Dietary fiber, glycemic load, and risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women. JAMA1997; 277: 472–477.
76.
TsengCCKiefferTJJarboeLA: Postprandial stimulation of insulin releases by glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP): Effect of a specific glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor antagonist in the rat. J Clin Invest1996; 98: 2440–2445.
77.
Van DijkGThieleTE: Glucagon-like peptide-I (7-36) amide: A central regulator of satiety and interoceptive stress. Neuropeptides1999; 33: 406–414.
78.
BourdonIOlsonBRackusR: Beans, as a source of dietary fiber, increase cholecystokinin and apolipoprotein B48 response to test meals in men. J Nutr2001; 131: 1485–1490.
79.
Burton-FreemanBDavisPASchneemanBO: Plasma cholecystokinin is associated with subjective measures of satiety in women. Am J Clin Nutr2002; 76: 659–667.
80.
BourdonIYokoyamaWDavisP: Postprandial lipid, glucose, insulin, and cholecystokinin responses in men fed barley pasta enriched with β-glucan. Am J Clin Nutr1999; 69: 55–63.
81.
AndersonJWGilinskyNHDeakinsDA: Lipid responses of hypercholesterolemic men to oat-bran and wheat-bran intake. Am J Clin Nutr1991; 54: 678–683.
82.
MarlettJA: Dietary fiber and cardiovascular disease. In: Handbook of Dietary Fiber (ChoSSDreherML, eds). New York: Marcel Dekker, 2001: pp 17–30.
83.
TrautweinEAKunath-RauAErbersdoblerHF: Increased fecal bile acid excretion and changes in the circulating bile acid pool are involved in the hypocholesterolemic and gallstone-preventive actions of psyllium in hamsters. J Nutr1999; 129: 896–902.
84.
AndersonJWDeakinsDABridgesSR: Soluble fiber: Hypocholesterolemic effects and proposed mechanisms. In: Dietary Fibre - Chemistry, Physiology, and Health Effects (KritchevskyDBonfieldCAndersonJW, eds). New York: Plenum Press, 1990; pp 339–363.
85.
JuhelCTosiniFSteibM: Cholesterol-lowering effect of non-viscous soluble dietary fiber Nutriose® FB in hypercholesterolemic hamsters. Ann Nutr Metab2007; 15 (suppl 1): 259.
86.
PrattVCTappendenKAMcBurneyMI: Short-chain fatty acid-supplemented total parenteral nutrition improves nonspecific immunity after intestinal resection in rats. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr1996; 20: 264–271.
87.
SandersonIR: Short chain fatty acid regulation of signaling genes expressed by the intestinal epithelium. J Nutr2004; 134: 2450S–2454S.
88.
RoedigerWE: Utilization of nutrients by isolated epithelial cells of rat colon. Gastroenterology1982; 83: 424–429.
89.
KorudaMJRolandelliRHBlissDZ: Parenteral nutrition supplemented with short-chain fatty acids: Effect on the small bowel mucosa in normal rats. Am J Clin Nutr1990; 51: 685–689.
90.
MariadasonJMBarklaDHGibsonPR: Effect of short-chain fatty acids on paracellular permeability in Caco-2 intestinal epithelium model. Am J Physiol1997; 272: G705–G712.
91.
BlumSSchiffrinEJ: Intestinal microflora and homeostasis of the mucosal immune response: Implications for probiotic bacteria?Curr Issues Intest Microbiol2003; 4: 53–60.
92.
SchiffrinEJRochatFLink-AmsterH: Immunomodulation of human blood cells following the ingestion of lactic acid bacteria. J Dairy Sci1995; 78: 491–497.
93.
LissnerLLindroosAKSjostromL: Swedish obese subjects (SOS): An obesity intervention study with a nutritional perspective. Eur J Clin Nutr1998; 52: 316–322.
94.
KimmS: The role of dietary fiber in the development and treatment of childhood obesity. Pediatr1995; 96: 1010–1014.
95.
AlfieriMPomerleauJGraceDM: Fiber intake of normal weight, moderately obese and severely obese subjects. Obes Res1995; 3: 541–547.
96.
NelsonLHTuckerLA: Diet composition related to body fat in a multivariate study of 293 men. J Am Diet Assoc1996; 96: 771–777.
97.
KromhoutDBloembergBSeidellJC: Physical activity and dietary fiber determine population body fat levels: The Seven Countries Study. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord2001; 25: 301–306.
98.
SlavinJGreenH: Dietary fibre and satiety. Nutr Bull2007; 32: 32–42.
99.
JenkinsDJWoleverTMRaoAV: Effect on blood lipids of very high intakes of fiber in diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol. N Engl J Med1993; 329: 21–26.
100.
BirketvedtGSAasethJFlorholmenJR: Long-term effect of fibre supplement and reduced energy intake on body weight and blood lipids in overweight subjects. Acta Medica (Hradec Kralove)2000; 43: 129–132.
101.
Mueller-CunninghamWMQuintanaRKasim-KarakasSE: An ad libitum, very low-fat diet results in weight loss and changes in nutrient intakes in postmenopausal women. J Am Diet Assoc2003; 103: 1600–1606.
102.
HaysNPStarlingRDLiuX: Effects of an ad libitum low-fat, high-carbohydrate diet on body weight, body composition, and fat distribution in older men and women. Arch Intern Med2004; 164: 210–217.
103.
HowarthNCSaltzmanERobertsSB: Dietary fiber and weight regulation. Nutr Rev2001; 59: 129–139.
104.
PasmanWJSarisWHMWautersMAJ: Effect of one week of fibre supplementation on hunger and satiety ratings and energy intake. Appetite1997; 29: 77–78.
105.
PatrickPGGohmanSMMarxSC: Effect of supplements of partially hydrolyzed guar gum on the occurrence of constipation and use of laxative agents. J Am Diet Assoc1998; 98: 912.
MeierRBurriESteuerwaldM: The role of nutrition in diarrhea syndromes. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care2003; 6: 563–567.
108.
AlamNHMeierRSchneiderH: Partially hydrolyzed guar gum-supplemented oral rehydration solution in the treatment of acute diarrhea in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr2000; 31: 503–507.
109.
HomannHHKemenMFuessenichC: Reduction in diarrhea incidence by soluble fiber in patients receiving total or supplemental enteral nutrition. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr1994; 18: 486–490.
110.
SpapenHDiltoerMVan MalderenC: Soluble fiber reduces the incidence of diarrhea in septic patients receiving total enteral nutrition: A prospective, double-blind, randomized, and controlled trial. Clin Nutr2001; 20: 301–305.
111.
NakamuraSHongRMojiM: Suppressive effect of partially hydrolyzed guar gum on transitory diarrhea induced by ingestion of maltitol and lactitol in healthy humans. Eur J Clin Nutr2007; 61: 1086–1093.
112.
YangGWuX-TZhouY: Application of dietary fiber in clinical enteral nutrition: A meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. World J Gastroenterol2005; 11: 3935–3938.
113.
ParisiGCZilliMMianiMP: High-fiber diet supplementation in patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): A multicenter, randomized, open trial comparison between wheat bran diet and partially hydrolyzed guar gum (PHGG). Dig Dis Sci2002; 47: 1696–1704.
114.
DeckmannRCCheskinLJ: Diverticular disease in the elderly. J Am Geriatr Soc1993; 41: 986–993.
115.
AldooriWHGiovannucciELRockettHR: A prospective study of dietary fiber types and symptomatic diverticular disease in men. J Nutr1998; 128: 714–719.
116.
SmitsBJWhiteheadAMPrescottP: Lactulose in the treatment of symptomatic diverticular disease: A comparative study with high-fibre diet. Br J Clin Pract1990; 44: 314–318.
117.
BrodribAJ: Treatment of symptomatic diverticular disease with a high-fibre diet. Lancet1977; i: 664–668.
118.
MarlettJAMcBurneyMISlavinJL: Position of the American Dietetic Association: Health implications of dietary fiber. J Am Diet Assoc2002; 102: 933–1000.
119.
BurkittDP: Varicose veins, deep vein thrombosis and haemorrhoids: Epidemiology and suggested aetiology. Br Med J1972; 2: 556–561.
120.
Alonso-CoelloPMillsEHeels-AnsdellD: Fiber for the treatment of hemorrhoids complications: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol2006; 101: 181–188.
121.
Alonso-CoelloPGuyattGHeels-AnsdellD: Laxatives for the treatment of hemorrhoids. Cochrane Database Syst Rev2005, Issue 4 Art No: CD004649. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004649.pub2.
122.
KhawKTBarrett-ConnorE: Dietary fiber and reduced ischemic heart disease mortality rates in men and women: A 12-year prospective study. Am J Epidemiol1987; 126: 1093–1102.
123.
RimmEBAscherioAGiovannucciE: Vegetable, fruit, and cereal fiber intake and risk of coronary heart disease among men. JAMA1996; 275: 447–451.
124.
ToddSWoodwardMTunstall-PedoeH: Dietary antioxidant vitamins and fiber in the etiology of cardiovascular disease and all-causes mortality: Results from the Scottish Heart Health Study. Am J Epidemiol1999; 150: 1073–1080.
125.
WolkAMansonJEStampferMJ: Long-term intake of dietary fiber and decreased risk of coronary heart disease among women. JAMA1999; 281: 1998–2004.
126.
BazzanoLAHeJOgdenLG: Dietary fiber intake and reduced risk of coronary heart disease in US men and women: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study. Arch Intern Med2003; 163: 1897–1904.
127.
JenkinsDJAVuksanVKendallCWC: Physiological effects of resistant starches on fecal bulk, short chain fatty acids, blood lipids and glycemic index. J Am Coll Nutr1998; 17: 609–616.
128.
ElmerPJObarzanekEVollmerWM: Effects of comprehensive lifestyle modification on diet, weight, physical fitness, and blood pressure control: 18-month results of a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med2006; 144: 485–495.
129.
AscherioARimmEBGiovannucciEL: A prospective study of nutritional factors and hypertension among US men. Circulation1992; 86: 1475–1484.
130.
AscherioAHennekensCWillettWC: Prospective study of nutritional factors, blood pressure, and hypertension among US women. Hypertension1996; 27: 1065–1072.
131.
KeenanJMPinsJJFrazelC: Oat ingestion reduces systolic and diastolic blood pressure in patients with mild or borderline hypertension: A pilot trial. J Fam Pract2002; 51: 369.
132.
HeJStreifferRHMuntnerP: Effect of dietary fiber intake on blood pressure: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Hypertens2004; 22: 73–80.
133.
AscherioARimmEBHernánMA: Intake of potassium, magnesium, calcium, and fiber and risk of stroke among US men. Circulation1998; 98: 1198–1204.
134.
FordESLiuS: Glycemic index and serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration among US adults. Arch Intern Med2001; 161: 572–576.
135.
LiuSMansonJEStampferMJ: Dietary glycemic load assessed by food-frequency questionnaire in relation to plasma high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol and fasting plasma triacylglycerols in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr2001; 73: 560–566.
136.
WalkerAR: Dietary fibre and mineral metabolism. Mol Aspects Med1987; 9: 69–87.
137.
TorreMRodriguezARSaura-CalixtoF: Effects of dietary fiber and phytic acid on mineral availability. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr1991; 30: 1–22.
