This article argues that different contexts in politics, economics, and society have shaped existing conceptions of culture in the field of international cross cultural management research, such as cross-national comparison (CNC) and intercultural interaction. This has led to different assumptions about culture that have, in turn, influenced research methodologies and research questions. An examination of recent changes that have impacted on work realities, and hence the research context, leads us to conclude that the assumptions underlying the dominant CNC perspective, as well as a fundamental construct in the intercultural interaction perspective, no longer fit most work contexts. We describe the multiple cultures perspective as an alternative research paradigm for investigating culture, since its underlying assumptions are shaped by the new work realities. Finally, we explore some key issues and challenges for researchers in the field that influence the way research is currently conducted and will be conducted in the future.
Abrahamson, E. (1996) ‘Management Fashion’ , Academy of Management Review21(1): 254-285 .
2.
Aktouf, O. (1989) ‘Corporate Culture, the Catholic Ethic, and the Spirit of Capitalism: A Quebec Experience’, in B.A. Turner (ed.) Organizational Symbolism, pp. 43-80. Berlin: de Gruyter .
3.
Ashforth, B.E. and Mael, F. (1989) ‘Social Identity in the Organization’ , Academy of Management Review14(1): 20-39 .
4.
Barley, S.R. (1984) ‘The Professional, the Semi-professional, and the Machine: The Social Ramifications of Computer-based Imaging in Radiology’, unpublished doctoral dissertation, Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA.
5.
Beck, U. (2003) Risikogesellschaft(Risk Society). Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp .
6.
Berger, P.L. and Luckmann, T. (1966) The Social Construction of Reality. New York: Doubleday .
7.
Bissels, S. , Sackmann, S.A. and Bissels, T. (2001) ‘Kulturelle Vielfalt in Organisationen’ (Cultural Diversity in Organizations) , Soziale Welt52(4): 403-426 .
8.
Bordinger-de-Uriarte, C. and Valgeirsson, G. (2002) ‘Cultural Disconnects among the Professional Institutions of American Journalism: Multicultural Mandates Mired in Monocultural Newsrooms’ , paper presented at the IIB Conference ‘Identifying Culture’, Institute of International Business, Stockholm School of Economics, Sweden, June.
9.
Boyacigiller, N.A.et al. (1996) ‘Conceptualizing Culture’, in B.J. Punnett and O. Shenkar (eds) Handbook for International Management Research, pp. 157-208. New York: Blackwell Publishers .
10.
Boyacigiller, N.A.et al. (2004) ‘Conceptualizing Culture: Elucidating the Streams of Research in International Cross-cultural Management’, in B.J. Punnett and O. Shenkar (eds) Handbook of International Management Research, 2nd edn, pp. 99-167. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press .
11.
BrainLAB (2004) www.brainlab.com, accessed 1 July 2004.
12.
Brannen, M.Y. (1994) ‘Your Next Boss is Japanese: Negotiating Cultural Change at a Western Massachusetts Paper Plant’, unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.
13.
Brannen, M.Y. (2002) ‘When Mickey Loses Face: Recontextualization and the Semiotics of Internationalizing Walt Disney’ , paper presented at the IIB Conference ‘Identifying Culture’, Institute of International Business, Stockholm School of Economics, Stockholm, Sweden, June.
14.
Brannen, M.Y. and Salk, J. (2000) ‘Partnering across Borders: Negotiating Organizational Culture in a German-Japanese Joint Venture’ , Human Relations53(4): 451-487 .
15.
Brett, J.M.et al. (1997) ‘New Approaches to the Study of Culture in Industrial/Organizational Psychology’, in P.C. Earley and M. Erez (eds) New Perspectives on International/Industrial Organizational Psychology. San Francisco: New Lexington Press .
16.
Brewster, C.et al. (2000) HR Health Check: Benchmarking HRM Practices across UK and Europe. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall .
17.
Burchell, R.N. (2002) ‘Concept Mapping and Pattern Matching as a Means of Organisational Culture Analysis’ , paper presented at the IIB Conference ‘Identifying Culture’, Institute of International Business, Stockholm School of Economics, Stockholm, Sweden, June.
18.
Bushe, G.R. (1988) ‘Cultural Contradictions of Statistical Process Control in American Manufacturing Organizations’ , Journal of Management14(1): 19-31 .
19.
Castells, M. (2000) The Rise of the Network Society, vol. 1. Oxford: Blackwell .
20.
Castells, M. (2000) Power of Identity, vol. 2. Oxford: Blackwell .
21.
Castells, M. (2000) End of Millennium, vol. 3. Oxford: Blackwell .
22.
Childs, P. and Williams, R.J.P. (1996) An Introduction to Post-Colonial Theory. London: Prentice Hall .
23.
Conlon, J.K. and Giovagnoli, M. (1998) The Power of Two: How Companies of All Sizes Can Build Alliance Networks that Generate Business Opportunities. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass .
24.
CRANET Project (Cranfield Network on International Human Resource Management) (2003), Human Resource Research Centre, Cranfield School of Management, Cranfield University, Bedford, www.cranet.org/publications/uk/reports.htm, accessed 1 July 2003.
25.
Dahler-Larsen, P. (1997) ‘Organizational Identity as a “Crowded Category”: A Case of Multiple and Quickly Shifting “We” Typifications’, in S.A. Sackmann (ed.) Cultural Complexity in Organizations: Inherent Contrasts and Contradictions, pp. 367-389. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
26.
Davidow, W.H. and Malone, M.S. (1992) The Virtual Corporation: Structuring and Revitalizing the Corporation for the 21st Century. New York: Harper Collins .
27.
Davis, S.I. (2001) Bank Mergers: Lessons for the Future. New York: Palgrave .
28.
de la Torre, J. (1990) ‘Managing in a Changing Global Economy’ , paper presented at the Advanced Executive Program, John E. Anderson Graduate School of Management, University of California, Los Angeles.
29.
de Vries, S. (1997) ‘Ethnic Diversity in Organizations: A Dutch Experience’, in S.A. Sackmann (ed.) Cultural Complexity in Organizations: Inherent Contrasts and Contradictions, pp. 297-314. Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
30.
Delano, J. (2000) Executive Commentary to J.S. Osland and A. Bird, ‘Beyond Sophisticated Stereotyping: Cultural Sensemaking in Context’ , Academy of Management Executive14(1): 77-78 .
31.
DiStefano, J.J. and Maznevski, M.L. (2000) ‘Creating Value with Diverse Teams in Global Management’ , Organizational Dynamics29(1): 45-63 .
32.
Doz, Y.L. and Prahalad, C.K. (1991) ‘Managing DMNCs: A Search for a New Paradigm’ , Strategic Management Journal12(Special Issue): 145-164 .
33.
Doz, Y. , Santos, J. and Williamson, P. (2001) From Global to Metanational. Boston: Harvard Business School Press .
34.
Dunning, J.H. (1988) ‘The Future of the Multinational Enterprise’, in J.C. Baker , J.K. Ryans Jr. and D.G. Howard (eds) International Business Classics, pp. 55-71. Lexington, MA: Heath .
35.
Earley, P.C. and Singh, H. (eds) (2000) Innovations in International and Cross-cultural Management. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
36.
Eberle, T.S. (1997) ‘Cultural Contrasts in a Democratic Nonprofit Organization: The Case of a Swiss Reading Society’, in S.A. Sackmann (ed.) Cultural Complexity in Organizations: Inherent Contrasts and Contradictions, pp. 133-159. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
37.
ERASMUS Projects (2004) http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/programmes/socrates/erasmus/erasmus_en.html, accessed 1 July 2004.
38.
Farmer, R.N. and Richman, B.N. (1965) Comparative Management and Economic Progress. Homewood, IL: Irwin .
39.
Fulbright Program, IIE (Institute of International Education, New York) (2003) http://exchanges.state.gov/education/Fulbright/, accessed 1 December 2003.
40.
Geertz, C. (1973) The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books .
41.
Geringer, J.M. , Frayne, C.A. and Milliman, J.F. (2002) ‘In Search of “Best Practices” in International Human Resource Management: Research Design and Methodology’ , Human Resource Management41(1): 5-30 .
42.
GLOBE Project (1993), Haskayne School of Business, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada , www.ucalgary.ca/mg/GLOBE/Public, accessed 1 July 2004.
43.
Globokar, T. (1997) ‘Eastern Europe Meets West: An Empirical Study on French Management in a Slovenian Plant’, in S.A. Sackmann (ed.) Cultural Complexity in Organizations: Inherent Contrasts and Contradictions, pp. 72-86. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
44.
Gross, P. (1994) Die Multioptionsgesellschaft (The Multioption Society). Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp .
45.
Guba, E.G. and Lincoln, Y.S. (1994) ‘Competing Paradigms in Qualitative Research’, in N.K. Denzing and Y.S. Lincoln (eds) Handbook of Qualitative Research, pp. 105-117. Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
46.
Haire, M. , Ghiselli, E.E. and Porter, L. (1966) Managerial Thinking: An International Study. New York: Wiley .
47.
Hall, S. (ed.) (1996) Questions of Cultural Identity. Newbury Park: Sage .
48.
Harbison, F. and Myers, C.A. (1959) Management in the Industrial World: An International Analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill .
49.
Harzing, A.-W.et al. (2002) ‘The Interaction between Language and Culture: A Test of the Cultural Accommodation Hypothesis in Seven Countries’ , Language and Intercultural Communication2(2): 120-139 .
50.
Herz, J. and Banthien, H. (2002) Evaluation internetgestützter Diskurse zur Innovations- und Technikanalyse (Evaluation of Internet Based Discourse in the Area of Innovation and Engineering Analysis). Berlin: IFOK (Institut für Organisationskommunikation) .
51.
Hickson, D.J. (ed.) (1993) Management in Western Europe. Berlin: de Gruyter .
52.
Hofstede, G.H. (1980) Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage .
53.
Hofstede, G.H. (2003) Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations, 2nd revised edn.Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
54.
House, R.J.et al. (1999) ‘Cultural Influences on Leadership and Organizations: Project GLOBE’, in W.F. Mobley , M.J. Gessner and V. Arnold (eds) Advances in Global Leadership, vol. 1., pp. 171-233. Stanford, CT: JAI Press .
55.
House, R.J.et al. (2004) Culture, Leadership and Organization: A GLOBE Study of 62 Societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
56.
Inglehart, R.F. (1985) ‘New Perspectives on Value and Change’ , Comparative Political Studies17: 485-532 .
57.
Inglehart, R.F. (1997) Modernization and Postmodernization: Cultural, Economic and Political Change in 43 Societies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
58.
Inglehart, R.F. (2002) ‘Cultural Cleavages in the European Union: Modernization and Cultural Persistence’, in D. Fuchs , E. Roller and B. Weßels (eds), Bürger und Demokratie in Ost und West: Studien zur politischen Kultur und zum politischen Prozess, pp. 73-84. Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag .
59.
Inglehart, R.F. and Baker, W.E. (2001) ‘Modernization’s Challenge to Traditional Values: Who’s Afraid of Ronald McDonald?’ , The Futurist35(2): 16-21 .
60.
Irrmann, O. (2002) ‘Intercultural Communication in International Business: The Case of Cross-border Mergers and Acquisitions’ , paper presented at the IIB Conference ‘Identifying Culture’, Institute of International Business, Stockholm School of Economics, Sweden, June.
61.
Jang, S. and Chung, M.-H. (1997) ‘Discursive Contradiction of Tradition and Modernity in Korean Management Practices: A Case Study of Samsung’s New Management’, in S.A. Sackmann (ed.) Cultural Complexity in Organizations: Inherent Contrasts and Contradictions, pp. 51-71. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
62.
Jones, V. (2002) ‘Beyond Black and White: Race and Social Identity in Brazil’ , paper presented at the IIB Conference ‘Identifying Culture’, Institute of International Business, Stockholm School of Economics, Sweden, June.
63.
Kilmann, R.H. (1983) ‘A Dialectical Approach to Formulating and Testing Social Science Theories: Assumptional Analysis’ , Human Relations36(1): 1-22 .
64.
Kleinberg, M.J. (1989) ‘Cultural Clash between Managers: America’s Japanese Firms’, in S.B. Prasad (ed.) Advances in International Comparative Management, vol. 4, pp. 221-244. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press .
65.
Kleinberg, M.J. (1994) ‘“The Crazy Group”: Emergent Culture in a Japanese-American Binational Work Group’, in S. Beechler and A. Bird (eds) Research in International Business and International Relations, vol. 6 (Special Issue on Japanese Management), pp. 1-45. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press .
66.
Koschik, A. (2003) ‘Eine-Welt-Laden’ (A One-World-Shop) , Junge Karriere3: 24-27 .
67.
Krafft, A.M. (1998) Organisationale Identität: Einheit von Vielfalt und Differenz. Dissertation No. 2115, Universität St. Gallen, Bamberg: Difo-Druck GmbH .
68.
Langan-Fox, J. and Tan, P. (1997) ‘Images of a Culture in Transition: Personal Constructs of Organizational Stability and Change’ , Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology70(3): 273-293 .
69.
Language and Culture Project (2004) www.harzing.com/research.htm and IIB, Research Program Language and Culture, Stockholm School of Economics, Sweden , www.sse.edu/IIB/Research/ResearchPrograms/LanguageAndCulture/LanguageAndCulture.htm, accessed 1 July 2004.
70.
Lawless, M.W. (1980) ‘Toward a Theory of Policy Making for Directed Interorganizational Systems’, doctoral dissertation, Graduate School of Management, University of California, Los Angeles, in Dissertation Abstracts International (University Microfilms No. 8111245).
71.
Lerpold, L. and Zander, L. (2002) ‘Making Sense of Changing Hats: A Study of Cultural Identities and Sensemaking’ , paper presented at the IIB Conference ‘Identifying Culture’, Institute of International Business, Stockholm School of Economics, Sweden, June.
72.
Louis, M.R. (1983) ‘Organizations as Culture-bearing Milieux’, in L.R. Pondyet al. (eds) Organizational Symbolism, pp. 39-54. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press .
73.
and For European Recovery: The Fiftieth Anniversary of the Marshall Plan, www.loc.gov/exhibits/marshall/m9.html, accessed 1 July 2004, pp. 7-9.
74.
Martin, J. and Siehl, C. (1983) ‘Organizational Culture and Counter-culture: An Uneasy Symbiosis’ , Organizational Dynamics12(2): 52-64 .
75.
Martin, J. , Sitkin, S.B. and Boehm, M. (1985) ‘Founders and the Elusiveness of a Cultural Legacy’, in P.J. Frostet al. (eds) Organizational Culture, pp. 99-124. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage .
76.
Maznevski, M.L. , Gibson, C.R. and Kirkman, B.L. (2000) ‘When Does Culture Matter?’, Working Paper, McIntire School of Commerce, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA.
77.
Mechanic, D. (1962) ‘Sources of Power of Lower Participants in Complex Organizations’ , Administrative Science Quarterly7(3): 349-364 .
78.
Moon, J.Y. and Sproul, L. (2002) ‘Essence of Distributed Work: The Case of the Linux Kernel’, in P. Hinds and S. Kiesler (eds) Distributed Work, pp. 381-404. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press .
79.
O’Hara-Devereaux, M. and Johansen, R. (1994) Global Work: Bridging Distance, Culture and Time. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass .
80.
Ouchi, W.G. (1981) Theory Z. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley .
81.
Pascale, R.T. and Athos, A.G. (1981) The Art of Japanese Management. New York: Warner .
82.
Pauleen, D.J. (ed.) (2003) Virtual Teams: Projects, Protocols and Processes. Hershey, PA: Idea Group .
83.
Phillips, M.E. (1994) ‘Industry Mindsets: Exploring the Cultures of Two Macro-organizational Settings’ , Organization Science5(3): 384-402 .
84.
Phillips, M.E. , Goodman, R.A. and Sackmann, S.A. (1992) ‘Exploring the Complex Cultural Milieu of Project Teams’ , pmNETwork - Professional Magazine of the Project Management Institute8: 20-26 .
85.
Pratt, M. (1998) ‘To Be Or Not To Be? Central Questions in Organizational Identification’, in D.A. Whetten and P.C. Godfrey (eds) Identity in Organizations, pp. 171-207. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
86.
Rifkin, J.P. (2000) The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Workforce and the Dawn of the Post-market Era. London: Penguin .
87.
Rigby, D. (2001) ‘Management Tools and Techniques: A Survey’ , California Management Review43(2): 139-160 .
88.
Ronen, S. and Shenkar, O. (1985) ‘Clustering Countries on Attitudinal Dimensions: A Review and Synthesis’ , Academy of Management Review10(3): 435-454 .
89.
Rusted, B. (1986) ‘Corporate Entertainment as Social Action: The Case of a Service Organization’ , paper presented at the International Conference on Organizational Symbolism and Corporate Culture, Montreal, Canada.
90.
Sackmann, S.A. (1991) Cultural Knowledge in Organizations: Exploring the Collective Mind. Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
91.
Sackmann, S.A. (1992) ‘Lässt sich Unternehmenskultur “machen”?’ (Can Corporate Culture be ‘Made’?), in K. Sandner (ed.) Politische Prozesse in Organisationen, 2nd edn, pp.157-184. Heidelberg: Springer .
92.
Sackmann, S.A. (ed.) (1997) Cultural Complexity in Organizations: Inherent Contrasts and Contradictions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
93.
Sackmann, S.A. (2003) ‘Cultural Complexity as a Challenge in the Management of Global Companies’, in Bertelsmann Foundation (ed.) Corporate Cultures in Global Interaction, Liz Mohn - A Cultural Forum Vol. III, pp. 58-81. Gütersloh, Germany: Bertelsmann .
94.
Sackmann, S.A. , Bissels, S. and Bissels, T. (2002) ‘Kulturelle Vielfalt in Organisationen: Ansätze zum Umgang mit einem vernachlässigten Thema der Organisationswissenschaften’ , Die Betriebswirtschaft62(1): 43-58 .
95.
Sackmann, S.A. and Phillips, M.E. (2002) ‘The Multiple Cultures Perspective: An Alternative Paradigm for International Cross-cultural Management Research’ , paper presented at 7th Conference of IWAM (International Western Academy of Management). Lima, Peru, July.
96.
Sackmann, S.A. , Phillips, M.E. , Kleinberg, M.J. and Boyacigiller, N. (1997) ‘Single and Multiple Cultures in International Cross-cultural Management Research: Overview’, in S.A. Sackmann (ed.) Cultural Complexity in Organizations: Inherent Contrasts and Contradictions, pp. 14-49. Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
97.
Salk, J. and Brannen, M.Y. (2000) ‘National Culture, Networks, and Individual Influence in a Multinational Management Team’ , Academy of Management Journal43(2): 191-202 .
98.
Salk, J. and Shenkar, O. (2001) ‘Social Identities in an International Joint Venture: An Exploratory Case Study’ , Organization Science12(2): 161-178 .
99.
Schein, E.H. (1985) Organizational Culture and Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass .
100.
Schumacher, T. (1997) ‘West Coast Camelot: The Rise and Fall of an Organizational Culture’, in S.A. Sackmann (ed.) Cultural Complexity in Organizations: Inherent Contrasts and Contradictions, pp. 107-132. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
101.
Schumann, H. (1999) ‘Das Jahrhundert des Kapitalismus: Die Globalisierung’ , Der Spiegel29(21 June): 121-137 .
102.
Schwartz, S.H. (1992) ‘Universals in the Content and Structure of Values: Theoretical Advances and Empirical Tests in 20 Countries’, in M.P. Zanna (ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, pp. 1-65. San Diego, CA: Academic Press .
103.
Sharpe, D. (1997) ‘Managerial Control Strategies and Subcultural Processes: On the Shop Floor in a Japanese Manufacturing Organization in the United Kingdom’, in S.A. Sackmann (ed.) Cultural Complexity in Organizations: Inherent Contrasts and Contradictions, pp. 228-251. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
104.
Siegwart, H. and Neugebauer, G. (eds) (1998) Mega-Fusionen(Mega-mergers). Bern: Haupt .
105.
Smith, P.B. , Peterson, M.F. and Schwartz, S.H. (2002) ‘Cultural Values, Sources of Guidance, and their Relevance to Managerial Behavior’ , Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology33(2): 188-208 .
106.
Søndergaard, M. (1994) ‘Research Note: Hofstede’s Consequences: A Study of Reviews, Citations, and Replications’ , Organization Studies Special Issue on Cross-national Organization Culture 15(3): 447-456 .
107.
Streider, J. (2001) Jacob Fugger the Rich: Merchant and Banker of Augsburg, 1459-1525. Beard Books .
108.
Sumihara, N. (1992) A Case Study of Structuration in a Bicultural Work Organization: A Study of a Japanese-owned and -managed Corporation in the U.S.A. Doctoral Dissertation. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Dissertation Services.
109.
Tajfel, H. (1981) Human Groups and Social Categories: Studies in Social Psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press .
110.
Teagarden, M.B.et al. (1995) ‘Towards Building a Theory of Comparative Management Research Methodology: An Idiographic Case Study of the Best International Human Resources Management Project’ , Academy of Management Journal38(5): 1261-1287 .
111.
Triandis, H.C. (1972) The Analysis of Subjective Culture. New York: Wiley .
112.
Trice, H.M. and Beyer, J.M. (1993) The Cultures of Work Organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall .
113.
Trompenaars, F. (1993) Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Diversity in Global Business. Chicago, IL: Irwin .
114.
von Glinow, M.A. , Drost, E.A. and Teagarden, M.B. (2002) ‘Converging on IHRM Best Practices: Lessons Learned from a Globally Distributed Consortium on Theory and Practice’ , Human Resource Management41(1): 123-140 .
115.
von Rosenstiel, L. and Nerdinger, F.W. (2000) ‘Die Münchner Wertestudien: Bestandsaufnahme und (vorläufiges) Resümee’ (The Munich Value Studies: Current Status and Preliminary Summary) , Psychologische Rundschau51: 146-157 .
116.
Westwood, R.I. and Kirkbride, P.S. (1989) ‘Jonathan Livingston Seagull is Alive and Well and Living in Hong Kong: Cultural Disjuncture in the Symbolization of Corporate Leadership’ , paper presented at the International Conference on Organizational Symbolism and Corporate Culture, Fontainebleau, France.
117.
Whetten, D.A. and Godfrey, P.C. (eds) (1998) Identity in Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
118.
Wren, D.A. (1994) The Evolution of Management Thought, 4th edn.New York: Wiley .
119.
Ybema, S.B. (1997) ‘Telling Tales: Contrasts and Commonalities within the Organization of an Amusement Park - Confronting and Combining Different Perspectives’, in S.A. Sackmann (ed.) Cultural Complexity in Organizations: Inherent Contrasts and Contradictions, pp. 160-186. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
