The objective of the study presented in this article is to answer the question of when nationality matters regarding employees’ interpersonal leadership preferences. Based on a literature review, 16 tenure- and demographic-based groupings of employees (four departments, five work positions, five age groups and gender) were identified. Hypotheses were developed regarding whether employee group-based belonging overrides nationality-based belonging. These were tested across 15 countries and could be rejected for almost all groups due to significant differences in leadership preferences. Although the results concerning three employee groupings: researchers, supervisors and ‘over 55-years-old’ were inconclusive, it was not possible to identify one specific employee grouping that overrode nationality-based belonging. These results contribute to earlier research by refuting the often argued notion that departments, hierarchical work positions, professions, age groups and gender are categories of employees that should be managed as distinct groups with similar leadership preferences across country borders.
Adler, N. and Bartholomew, S. (1992) ‘Managing Globally Competent People’ , The Academy of Management Executive6(3): 52-66 .
2.
Alvesson, M. (2002) Understanding Organizational Culture. London: Sage .
3.
Ashford, B.E. and Saks, A.M. (1996) ‘Socialization Tactics: Longitudinal Effects on Newcomer Adjustment’ , Academy of Management Journal39: 149-178 .
4.
Ayman, R. and Chemers, M.M. (1991) ‘The Effect of Leadership Match on Subordinate Satisfaction in Mexican Organisations: Some Moderating Influences of Self-monitoring’ , Applied Psychology: An International Review40(3): 299-314 .
5.
Barley, S. (1986) ‘Technology as an Occasion for Structuring: Evidence from Observations on CT Scanners and the Social Order of Radiology Departments’ , Administrative Science Quarterly31: 78-108 .
6.
Bass, B. (1990) Bass and Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Managerial Applications, 3rd edn.New York: Free Press .
7.
Black, J.S. and Mendenhall, M. (1990) ‘Cross-cultural Training Effectiveness: A Review and a Theoretical Framework for Future Research’ , Academy of Management Review15(1): 113-136 .
8.
Brislin, R.W. (1986) ‘The Wording and Translation of Research Instruments’, in W.J. Lonner and J.W. Berry (eds) Field Methods in Cross-cultural Research, pp. 137-164. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage .
9.
Brodbeck, F.C.et al. (2000) ‘Cultural Variation of Leadership Prototypes across 22 European Countries’ , Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology73: 1-29 .
10.
Brown, J.S. and Duguid, P. (1991) ‘Organizational Learning and Communities of Practice’ , Organization Science2(1): 40-57 .
11.
Buchanan, B. (1974) ‘Building Organisational Commitment: The Socialisation of Managers in Work Organisations’ , Administrative Science Quarterly19(4): 533-562 .
12.
Butterfield, A. and Grinnell, J. (1999) ‘“Re-Viewing” Gender, Leadership and Managerial Behavior: Do Three Decades of Research Tell Us Anything?’, in Gary N. Powell (ed.) Gender and Work. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
13.
Chatman, J. and Jehn, K. (1994) ‘Assessing the Relationship between Industry Characteristics and Organizational Culture: How Different Can You Be?’ , Academy of Management Journal37(3): 522-553 .
14.
Chemers, M. and Murphy, S. (1995) ‘Leadership and Diversity in Groups and Organizations’, in M. Chemers , S. Oskamp and M. Costanzo (eds) Diversity in Organizations: New Perspectives for a Changing Workplace, pp. 157-190. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
15.
Cox, Taylor Jr. and Finley, J. (1995) ‘An Analysis of Work Specialization and Organization as Dimensions of Workforce Diversity’, in Martin Chemerset al. (eds) Diversity in Organizations: New Perspectives for a Changing Workplace, pp. 62-90. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
16.
Cunnison, S. (1982) ‘The Manchester Factory Studies, the Social Context, Bureaucratic Organization, Sexual Divisions and their Influence on Patterns of Accommodation between Workers and Management’, in R. Frankenberg (ed.) Custom and Conflict in British Society. Manchester: Manchester University Press .
17.
Dubinskas, F. (1988) ‘Janus Organizations: Scientists and Managers in Genetic Engineering Firms’, in F. Dubinskas Making Time: Ethnographies of High-technology Organizations, pp. 170-232. Philadelphia: Temple University Press .
18.
Eagly, A. and Johnson, B. (1990) ‘Gender and Leadership: A Meta-analysis’ , Psychology Bulletin2: 233-256 .
19.
Earley, P.C. (1994) ‘Self or Group? Cultural Effects of Training on Self-Efficacy and Performance’ , Administrative Science Quarterly39: 89-117 .
20.
Gannon, M. and Demler, J. (1971) ‘Organizational Level and Job Attitudes’ , Psychological Reports29: 399-402 .
21.
Gebert, D. and Steinkamp, T. (1991) ‘Leadership Style and Economic Success in Nigeria and Taiwan’ , Management International Review31(2): 161-171 .
22.
Gibson, C.B. (1995) ‘An Investigation of Gender Differences in Leadership across Four Countries’ , Journal of International Business (Second Quarter): 255-279 .
23.
Gilbert G. , Collins, R. and Brenner, R. (1991) ‘Age and Leadership Effectiveness: From the Preferences of the Follower’ , International Human Resource Management2(29): 187-196 .
24.
Glick, N.D. (2002) ‘The Relationship between Cross Cultural Experience and Training, and Leader Effectiveness in the US Foreign Service’ , International Journal of Cross Cultural Management2(3): 339-356 .
25.
Golembiewski, R. (1995) Managing Diversity in Organizations. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press .
26.
Gordon, G. (1991) ‘Industry Determinants of Organizational Culture’ , Academy of Management Review16: 396-415 .
27.
Gouldner, A. (1957) ‘Cosmopolitans and Locals: Toward an Analysis of Latent Social Roles’ , Administrative Science Quarterly2: 281-306 .
28.
Gregory, K. (1983) ‘Native-view Paradigms: Multiple Cultures and Culture Conflicts in Organizations’ , Administrative Science Quarterly3(28): 359-376 .
29.
Gupta, V. , Hanges, P.J. and Dorfman, P. (2002) ‘Cultural Clusters: Methodology and Findings’ , Journal of World Business37: 11-15 .
30.
(Originally published in 1991 in Theory, Culture and Society7: 237-251 ).
31.
Harris, L.C. and Ogbonna, E. (1998) ‘Employee Responses to Culture Change Efforts’ , Human Resource Management Journal8(2): 78-92 .
32.
Harzing, A.-W.et al. (2003) ‘The Interaction between Language and Culture: A Test of the Cultural Accommodation Hypothesis in Seven Countries’ , Language and Intercultural Communication2(2): 120-139 .
33.
Hofstede, G. (1977) ‘Cultural Determinants of the Exercise of Power in a Hierarchy’, Working Paper 77-8. Brussels: European Institute for Advanced Studies in Management .
34.
Hofstede, G. (1980/1984) Cultures’ Consequences. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage .
35.
Hofstede, G. (1991) Cultures and Organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill .
36.
Hofstede, G. (1998) ‘Identifying Organizational Subcultures: An Empirical Approach’ , Journal of Management Studies35(1): 1-12 .
37.
Hofstede, G.et al. (2002) ‘What Goals Do Business Leaders Pursue? A Study in Fifteen Countries’ , Journal of International Business Studies33 (Fourth Quarter): 785-803 .
38.
Jermier, J.M. , Slocum, J.W. , Fry, L.W. and Gaines, J. (1991) ‘Organizational Subcultures in a Soft Bureaucracy: Resistance Behind the Myth and Façade of the Official Culture’ , Organization Science2: 170-194 .
39.
Kanter, R. (1977) Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Anchor Press .
40.
Kanter, R. (1995) World Class: Thriving Locally in the Global Economy. New York: Simon and Schuster .
41.
Konrad, A.et al. (1998) ‘What Managers Like to Do?’ , paper presented at the ISSWOV’s 1998 conference in Istanbul, 12-15 July 1998.
42.
Laurent, A. (1983) ‘The Cultural Diversity of Western Conceptions of Management’ , International Studies of Management and Organization13(1-2): 75-97 .
43.
Levy, O.et al. (1999) ‘What We Talk About When We Talk about Global Mindset’ , paper presented at the Academy of Management Meeting, 6-11 August 1999 in Chicago.
44.
Louis, M.R. (1980) ‘Surprise and Sense Making: What Newcomers Experience in Entering Unfamiliar Organisational Settings’ , Administrative Science Quarterly25: 226-251 .
45.
Louis, M.R. (1985) ‘An Investigator’s Guide to Workplace Culture’, in P. Frostet al. (eds) Organizational Culture, pp. 73-93. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage .
46.
Lundberg, C. and Peterson, M. (1994) ‘The Meaning of Working in U.S. and Japanese Local Governments at Three Hierarchical Levels’ , Human Relations47(12): 1459-1487 .
47.
Martin, J. (1992) Cultures in Organizations: Three Perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press .
48.
Maznevski, M.L.et al. (2002) ‘Cultural Dimensions at the Individual Level of Analysis: The Cultural Orientations Framework’ , International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management2(3): 275-295 .
49.
Maznevski, M. and Zander, L. (2001) ‘Leading Global Teams: Overcoming the Challenge of Power Paradox’, in M. Mendenhall , T. Kuehlmann and G. Stahl (eds) Developing Global Business Leaders: Policies, Processes, and Innovations. London: Quorum Books .
50.
Moch, M. and Bartunek, J. (1990) Creating Alternative Realities at Work: The Quality of Work Life Experiment at Foodcom. New York: Harper Business .
51.
Newman, K.L. and Nollen, S.D. (1996) ‘Culture and Congruence: The Fit Between Management Preferences and National Culture’ , Journal of International Business Studies (Fourth Quarter): 753-759 .
52.
Patterson, M. , Payne, R. and West, M. (1996) ‘Collective Climates: A Test of their Sociopsychological Significance’ , Academy of Management Journal39(6): 1675-1691 .
53.
Peppas, S.C. (2002) ‘Subcultural Approaches to Management: A Comparative Study of African and Euro-American Values’ , Cross Cultural Management9(2): 45-64 .
54.
Peterson, M.et al. (1995) ‘Role Conflict, Ambiguity, and Overload: A 21-nation Study’ , Academy of Management Journal38(2): 429-452 .
55.
Putti, J.M. and Tong, A.C. (1992) ‘Effects of Leader Behavior on Subordinate Satisfaction in a Civil Service Asian Context Public’ , Personnel Management21(1): 53-63 .
56.
Raelin, J. (1985/1986/1991) The Clash of Cultures: Managers Managing Professionals. Boston: Harvard Business School Press .
57.
Rosen, M. (1991) ‘Breakfast at Spiro’s: Dramaturgy and Dominance’, in P. Frostet al. (eds) Reframing Organizational Culture, pp. 77-89. Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
58.
Sackmann, S. (1991) Cultural Knowledge in Organizations: Exploring the Collective Mind. London: Sage .
59.
Sackmann, S. (1992) ‘Culture and Subcultures: An Analysis of Organizational Knowledge’ , Administrative Science Quarterly37: 140-161 .
60.
Sagiv, L. and Schwartz, S. (2000) ‘A New Look at National Culture: Illustrative Applications to Role Stress and Managerial Behavior’, in N. Ashkanasy , C. Wilderom and M. Peterson (eds) Handbook of Organizational Culture and Climate, pp. 417-435. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
61.
Schein, E. (1985/1992) Organisational Culture and Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass .
62.
Schwartz, S.H. (1994) ‘Beyond Individualism/Collectivism. New Cultural Dimensions of Values’, in U. Kimet al. (eds) Individualism and Collectivism: Theory, Method, and Applications, pp. 85-119. London: Sage .
63.
Selmer, J. (1996) ‘What Expatriate Managers Know about the Work Values of Their Subordinates: Swedish Executives in Thailand’ , Management International Review36(3): 231-242 .
64.
Sharpe, D. (1997) ‘Managerial Control Strategies and Subcultural Processes: On the Shop Floor in a Japanese Manufacturing Organization in the United Kingdom’, in S. Sackmann (ed.) Cultural Complexity in Organizations: Inherent Contrasts and Contradictions, pp. 228-251. London: Sage .
65.
Silverthorne, C. and Wang, T.-H. (2001) ‘Situational Leadership Style as a Predictor of Success and Productivity among Taiwanese Business Organizations’ , The Journal of Psychology135(4): 399-412 .
66.
Smith, P.B. , Dugan, S. and Trompenaars, F. (1996) ‘National Culture and the Values of Organizational Employees: A Dimensional Analysis across 43 Nations’ , Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology27(2): 231-264 .
67.
Smith, P.B. and Peterson, M.F. (1988) Leadership, Organizations and Culture. London: Sage .
68.
Smith, P.B. and Schwartz, S.H. (1997) ‘Values’, in J.W. Berry , M.H. Segall and C. Kagitcibasi (eds) Handbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology, vol. 3, 2nd edn, pp. 77-118. Boston: Allyn & Bacon .
69.
Tannenbaum, A.S. (1968) Control in Organizations. New York: McGraw-Hill .
70.
Tannenbaumet al. (1974) Hierarchy in Organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass .
71.
Tayeb, M. (1994) ‘Japanese Managers and British Culture: A Comparative Case Study , International Journal of Human Resource Management5: 145-166 .
72.
Trice, H. and Beyer, J.M. (1991) ‘Cultural Leadership in Organizations’ , Organization Science2(2): 149-169 .
73.
Trice, H. and Beyer, J.M. (1993) The Cultures of Work Organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall .
74.
Trompenaars, F. (1993) Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business. Avon: The Bath Press .
75.
Trompenaars, F. and Hampden-Turner, C. (1997) Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing .
76.
Turner, B. (1971) The Industrial SubcultureLondon: Macmillan .
77.
Van Maanen, J. (1991) ‘The Smile Factory: Work at Disneyland’, in P. Frostet al. (eds) Reframing Organizational Culture, pp. 58-76. Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
78.
Van Maanen, J. and Barley, S. (1984) ‘Occupational Communities: Culture and Control in Organizations’ , Research in Organizational Behavior6: 287-365 .
79.
Van Maanen, J. and Barley, S. (1985) ‘Cultural Organization: Fragments of a Theory’, in P. Frostet al. (eds) Organizational Culture, pp. 31-54. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage .
80.
Weiss, H.M. (1978) ‘Social Learning of Work Values in Organisations’ , Journal of Applied Psychology63(6): 711-718 .
81.
Yeh, Q.-J. (1995) ‘Leadership, Personal Traits and Job Characteristics in R&D Organizations: A Taiwanese Case’ , Leadership and Organizational Development Journal16(6): 16-28 .
82.
Young, E. (1989) ‘On the Naming of the Rose: Interests and Multiple Meanings as Elements of Organizational Culture’ , Organization Studies10(2): 187-206 .
83.
Young, E. (1991) ‘On the Naming of the Rose: Interests and Multiple Meanings as Elements of Organizational Culture’, in P. Frostet al. (eds) Reframing Organizational Culture, pp. 90-103. Newbury Park, CA: Sage .
84.
Zander, L. (1997) The Licence to Lead: An 18 Country Study of the Relationship between Employees’ Preferences Regarding Interpersonal Leadership and National Culture, published PhD dissertation. Stockholm: The Institute of International Business, Stockholm School of Economics.
85.
Zander, L. (2002) ‘Empowering Europe: Empowerment, National Culture and Cultural Congruence’, in M. Warner and P. Joynt (eds) Managing Across Cultures: Issues and Perspectives, pp. 103-123. London: Thomson Learning .
