Despite the widespread recognition of the importance of creativity in
advertising by practitioners and scholars, no systematic research has been
conducted to define ad creativity or examine how it relates to ad effectiveness.
The present research attempts to fill this gap by reviewing past literature in
psychology, marketing and advertising. From this base, a model is developed
which defines a creative ad as both divergent (i.e. novel or unusual) and
relevant. The effects of divergence and (to a lesser extent) relevance on
consumer processing and response are examined and a series of theoretical
propositions are developed. Next, a general theory of creativity in advertising
is developed that calls for research in five primary areas: advertising as a
communication process, management process, societal process, group process, and
personal process. Finally, contributions to advertising theory and implications
for future research are discussed, along with commentary from a prominent
advertising executive.
Amabile, T.
(1983) The Social Psychology of Creativity.
New York: Springer-Veclay
.
2.
Amabile, T.
(1996) Creativity in Context.
Boulder, CO: Westview Press Inc.
3.
Andrews, J.
and
Smith, D.
(1996)
‘In Search of the Marketing Imagination: Factors Affecting the
Creativity of Marketing Programs of Mature Products’
, Journal of Marketing Research33 (May):
174–187
.
4.
Baer, J.
(1993) Creativity and Divergent Thinking: A Task-Specific
Approach.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
.
5.
Berlyne, D.E.
(1971) Aesthetics and Psychobiology.
New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts
.
6.
Besemer, S.
and
O’Quinn, K.
(1986)
‘Analyzing Creative Products: Refinement and Test of a Judging Instrument’
, Journal of Creative Behavior20(2):
115–126
.
7.
Besemer, S.
and
Treffinger, D.J.
(1981)
‘Analysis of Creative Products: Review and Synthesis’
, Journal of Creative Behavior15(3):
158–178
.
8.
Broyles, S.J.
(2000) ‘Diversity and its Relation to the
Creative Execution in Magazine Advertising’, in
Mary A. Shaver
(ed.) The Proceedings of the 2000 Conference of the American Academy of
Advertising,pp. 116–118.
East Lansing, MI: American Academy of Advertising
.
9.
Cattell, R.B.
(1957) Personality and Motivation Structure and
Measurement.
New York: Harcourt Brace
.
10.
Clow, K.
,
Roy, D.
and
Baack, D.
(2001) ‘Content Analysis of Creative Message
Strategies in Service Advertisements’, in
Charles R. Taylor
(ed.) The Proceedings of the 2001 Conference of the American Academy of
Advertising,pp. 48–55.
Villanova, PA: American Academy of Advertising
.
11.
Craik, F.
and
Lockhart, R.
(1972)
‘Levels of Processing: A Framework for Memory Research’
, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior11 (December):
671–684
.
12.
Duke, L.
(2000) ‘Like an Idea, Only Better: How Do
Advertising Educators and Practitioners Define and Use the Creative
Concept?’, in
Mary A. Shaver
(ed.) The Proceedings of the 2000 Conference of the American Academy of
Advertising, pp. 114–115.
East Lansing, MI: American Academy of Advertising
.
13.
Duke, L.
and
Sutherland J.
(2001) ‘Toward a Confluence Model of Advertising
Creative Concepts’, in
Charles R. Taylor
(ed.) The Proceedings of the 2001 Conference of the American Academy of
Advertising, p. 231-231.
Villanova, PA: American Academy of Advertising
.
14.
Faison, E.W.
(1977)
‘The Neglected Variety Drive: A Useful Concept for Consumer Behavior’
, Journal of Consumer Research4 (December):
172–175
.
15.
Finger, F.W.
and
Mook, D.G.
(1971)
‘Basic Drives’
, Annual Review of Psychology22:
1–38
.
16.
Finke, R.A.
(1995) ‘Creative Realism’, in
Steven M. Smith
,
Thomas B. Ward
and
Ronald A. Finke
(eds) The Creative Cognition Approach, pp.
303–326.
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press
.
17.
Frazer, C.
(2002) ‘Seven Creative Strategy Alternatives
Revisited’, in
Charles Taylor
(ed.) The Proceedings of the 2002 Conference of the American Academy of
Advertising, p. 180-180Villanova, PA: American Academy of Advertising
.
18.
Getzels, J.W.
and
Csikszentmihalyi, M.
(1975) ‘From Problem Solving to Problem
Finding’, in
I.A. Taylor
and
J.W. Getzels
(eds) Perspectives in Creativity, pp.
90–116.
Chicago, IL: Aldine
.
19.
Ghiselin, B.
(1963) ‘Ultimate Criteria for Two Levels of
Creativity’, in
C.W. Taylor
and
F. Barron
(eds) Scientific Creativity: Its Recognition and Development, pp.
30–43.
New York: Wiley
.
20.
Greenwald, A.G.
and
Leavitt, C.
(1984)
‘Audience Involvement in Advertising: Four Levels’
, Journal of Consumer Research11 (June):
581–592
.
21.
Greenwald, A.G.
and
Banaji, M.R.
(1995)
‘Implicit Social Cognition: Attitudes, Selfesteem, and Stereotypes’
, Psychological Review102 (January):
4–27
.
22.
Guilford, J.P.
(1950)
‘Creativity’
, The American Psychologist14:
444–454
.
Guilford, J.P.
(1967) The Nature of Human Intelligence.
New York: McGraw-Hill
.
25.
Guilford, J.P.
(1968) Intelligence Creativity, and their Educational
Implications.
San Diego, CA: Robert R. Knapp
.
26.
Haberland, G.
and
Dacin, P.A.
(1992)
‘The Development of a Measure to Assess Viewers’
Judgments of the Creativity of an Advertisement: A Preliminary Study’
, Advances in Consumer Research19:
817–825
.
27.
Harmon, L.R.
(1963) ‘The Development of a Criterion of
Scientific Competence’, in
C.W. Taylor
and
F. Barron
(eds) Scientific Creativity: Its Development and Recognition, pp.
44–52.
New York: Wiley
.
28.
Hunt, J.V.
(1963) ‘Motivation Inherent in Information
Processing and Action’, in
O.J. Harvey
(ed.) Motivational and Social Interaction – Cognitive
Determinants, pp. 35–94.
NY: Ronald Press
.
29.
Jackson, P.W.
and
Messick, S.
(1965)
‘The Person, the Product, and the Response: Conceptual Problems
in the Assessment of Creativity’
, Journal of Personality33 (March–December):
309–329
.
30.
Kim, H.G.
and
Leckenby, J.
(2002) ‘Creative Factors in Interactive
Advertising’, in
Avery M. Abemethy
(ed.) The Proceedings of the 2002 Conference of the American Academy of
Advertising, pp. 58–63.
Auburn, AL: American Academy of Advertising
.
31.
Kover, A.J.
(1995)
‘Copywriters – Implicit Theories of Communication: An Exploration’
, Journal of Consumer Research21 (March):
596–611
.
32.
Kover, A.J.
,
Goldberg, S.M.
and
James, W.L.
(1995)
‘Creativity vs. Effectiveness? An Integrating Classification for Advertising’
, Journal of Advertising Research35 (November/December):
29–38
.
33.
Krugman, H.E.
(1965)
‘The Impact of Television Advertising: Learning Without Involvement’
, Public Opinion Quarterly29:
349–356
.
34.
Krugman, H.E.
(1971)
‘Brain Wave Measures of Media Involvement’
, Journal of Advertising Research11 (February):
3–9
.
35.
Laczniak, R.N.
and
Muehling, D.D.
(1993)
‘The Relationship Between Experimental Manipulations and Tests of
Theory in an Advertising Message Involvement Context’
, Journal of Advertising22 (September):
59–74
.
36.
MacInnis, D.J.
and
Jaworski, B.J.
(1989)
‘Information Processing from Advertisements: Toward an
Integrative Framework’
, Journal of Marketing53 (October):
1–23
.
37.
MacInnis, D.J.
,
Rao, A.G.
and
Weiss, A.M.
(2002)
‘Assessing When Increased Media Weight of Real-World
Advertisements Helps Sales’
, Journal of Marketing Research39 (November):
391–407
.
38.
MacKenzie, S.B.
,
Lutz, R.J.
and
Belch, G.J.
(1986)
‘The Role of Attitude toward the Ad as a Mediator of Advertising
Effectiveness: A Test of Competing Explanations’
, Journal of Marketing Research23 (May):
130–143
.
39.
MacKinnon, D.W.
(1962)
‘The Nature and Nurture of Creative Talent’
, American Psychologist17(7):
484–495
.
40.
McQuarrie, E.F.
and
Mick, D.M.
(1992)
‘On Resonance: A Critical Pluralistic Inquiry into Advertising Rhetoric’
, Journal of Consumer Research19 (September):
180–197
.
41.
Maddi, S.R.
(1968) ‘The Pursuit of Consistency and
Variety’, in
R.P. Abelson
(ed.) Theories of Cognitive Consistency: A Sourcebook, pp.
267–274.
Chicago, IL: Rand McNally
.
42.
Martin, M.
(1995)
‘Do Creative Commercials Sell?’Campaign22 (September):
34–35
.
43.
Maslow, A.H.
(1970) Motivation and Personality(2nd Ed.).
New York: Harper
.
44.
Maslow, A.H.
(1971) The Farthest Reaches of Human Nature.
New York: Penguin Books
.
45.
Mishra, S.
,
Umesh, U.N.
and
Stern, Jr. D.E.
(1993)
‘Antecedents of the Attraction Effect: An Information Processing Approach’
, Journal of Marketing Research30 (August):
331–349
.
46.
Mumford, M.D.
and
Gustafson, S.B.
(1988)
‘Creativity Syndrome: Integration, Application, and Innovation’
, Psychological Bulletin103 (January):
27–43
.
47.
Nissen, H.W.
(1951) ‘Phylogenetic
Comparison’, Handbook of Experimental Psychology.
New York: John Wiley
.
48.
Ornstein, P.A.
and
Trabasso, T.
(1974)
‘To Organize is to Remember – the Effects of
Instructions to Organize and Recall’
, Journal of Experimental Psychology103(5):
1014–1018
.
49.
Peracchio, L.A.
and
Meyers-Levy, J.
(1994)
‘How Ambiguous Cropped Object in Ad Photos Can Affect Product Evaluations’
, Journal of Consumer Research21 (June):
190–204
.
50.
Petty, R.E.
and
Cacioppo, J.T.
(1986) Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral
Routes to Attitude Change.
New York: Springer-Verlag
.
51.
Petty, R.E.
,
Cacioppo, J.T
and
Schumann, D.
(1983)
‘Central and Peripheral Routes to Advertising Effectiveness: The
Moderating Role of Involvement’
, Journal of Consumer Research10 (September):
135–146
.
52.
Petty, R.E.
and
Wegener, D.T.
(1999) ‘The Elaboration Likelihood Model:
Current Status and Controversies’, in
Shelly Chaiken
and
Yaacov Trope
(eds) Dual Process Theories in Social Psychology.
New York: Guilford Press
.
53.
Pieters, R.
,
Rosbergen, E.
and
Wedel, M.
(1999)
‘Visual Attention to Repeated Print Advertising: A Test of
Scanpath Theory’
, Journal of Marketing Research36 (November):
424–438
.
54.
Reid, L.N.
,
King, K.W.
and
DeLorme, D.E.
(1998)
‘Top-Level Agency Creatives Look at Advertising Creativity Then
and Now’
, Journal of Advertising27 (Summer):
1–15
.
55.
Rogers, E.M.
(1957)
‘Personality Correlates of the Adoption of Technological Practices’
, Rural Psychology22:
267–268
.
56.
Shavitt, S.
(1990)
‘The Role of Attitude Objects in Attitude Functions’
, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology26 (March):
124–148
.
57.
Sobel, R.S.
and
Rothenberg, A.
(1980)
‘Artistic Creation as Stimulated by Superimposed Versus Separated
Visual Images’
, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology39 (November):
953–961
.
58.
Sternberg, R.J.
(1999) The Handbook of Creativity.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
.
59.
Stewart, D.W.
and
Furse, F.
(1984)
‘Analysis of the Impact of Executional Factors on Advertising Performance’
, Journal of Advertising Research24:
23–26
.
Thorson, E.
and
Zhao, X.
(1997) ‘Television Viewing Behavior as an
Indicator of Commercial Effectiveness’, in
William D. Wells
(ed.) Measuring Advertising Effectiveness.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
.
62.
Torrance, E.P.
(1972)
‘Predictive Validity of the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking’
, Journal of Creative Behavior6(4):
236–252
.
63.
Torrance, E.P.
(1987) Using the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking to Guide
the Teaching of Creative Behavior.
Bensenville, IL: Scholastic Testing Service
.
64.
Torrance, E.P.
(1988) ‘Creativity as Manifest in
Testing’, in
J.R. Sternberg
(ed.) The Nature of Creativity, pp.
43–75.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
.
65.
Torrance, E.P.
(1990) The Torrance Test of Creative Thinking:
Norms-Technical Manual.
Bensenville, IL: Scholastic Testing Service
.
