A large amount of research in advertising utilizes theories from other disciplines
and simply uses an advertising message as a stimulus or focal content topic. The
actual elements that make advertising unique are often ignored in this work. It is
proposed here that advertising theory and research needs to become more focused on
what makes advertising a distinct phenomenon and these elements need to be
incorporated in our thoughts and research. Four examples of possible elements are
suggested here. These are skepticism, repetition, message coordination and clutter.
Research in each of these areas is reviewed and illustrations of how they may impact
theory development and theory testing in advertising are presented.
American Marketing Association
(1960) Definitions: A Glossary of Marketing Terms.
Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association
.
2.
Batra, R.
and
Ray, M.L.
(1986)
‘Situational Effects of Advertising Repetition: The Moderating
Influence of Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity to Respond’
, Journal of Consumer Research12(4) (March):
432–445
.
3.
Berelson, B.
(1963) The Behavioral Sciences Today.
New York: Basic Books
.
4.
Berelson, B.R.
,
Lazersfeld, P.F.
and
McPhee, W.N.
(1954) Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential
Campaign.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
.
5.
Berlyne, D.E.
(1970)
‘Novelty, Complexity, and Hedonic Value’
, Perception and Psychophysics8(5A) (November):
279–286
.
6.
Boush, D.M.
,
Friestad, M.
and
Rose, G.M.
(1994)
‘Adolescent Skepticism toward TV Advertising and Knowledge of
Advertiser Tactics’
, Journal of Consumer Research21(1) (June):
165–175
.
7.
Brit, S.H.
,
Adams, S.C.
and
Miller, A.S.
(1972)
‘How Many Advertising Exposures per Day?’Journal of Advertising Research12(6):
3–10
.
8.
Brown, T.J.
and
Rothschild, M.L.
(1993)
‘Reassessing the Impact of Television Advertising Clutter’
, Journal of Consumer Research20(1) (June):
138–146
.
9.
Burke, R.R.
and
Srull, T.K.
(1988)
‘Competitive Interference and Consumer Memory for Advertising’
, Journal of Consumer Research15(1) (June):
55–68
.
10.
Cacioppo, J.T.
and
Petty, R.E.
(1980)
‘Persuasiveness of Communications Is Affected by Exposure
Frequency and Message Quality: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis of
Persisting Attitude Change’
, Current Issues and Research in Advertising3(1):
97–123
.
11.
Calder, B.J.
and
Sternthal, B.
(1980)
‘Television Commercial Wearout: An Information Processing View’
, Journal of Marketing Research17(2) (May):
173–186
.
12.
Calfee, J.E.
(1997) Fear of Persuasion.
Mannaz, Switzerland: Agora
.
13.
Calfee, J.E.
and
Ringold, D.
(1994)
‘The 70% Majority: Enduring Consumer Beliefs about Advertising’
, Journal of Public Policy & Marketing13(2):
228–236
.
14.
Campbell, D.T.
(1969) ‘Ethnocentricism of Disciplines and the
Fish-Scale Model of Omniscience’, in
M. Sherif
and
C.W. Sherif
(eds) Interdisciplinary Relationships in the Social Sciences, pp.
328–348.
Chicago, IL: Aldine
.
15.
Cohen, D.
(1972) Advertising.
New York: John Wiley
.
16.
Dickson, J.P.
(1972)
‘Coordinating Images Between Media’
, Journal of Advertising Research12(1):
25–28
.
17.
Dollard, J.
,
Doob, L.W.
,
Miller, N.E.
,
Mower, O.H.
and
Sears, R.R.
(1939) Frustration and Aggression.
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press
.
18.
Dominick, J.R.
(1983) The Dynamics of Mass Communication.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley
.
19.
Duncan, T.
and
Moriarty, S.E.
(1998)
‘A Communication-Based Marketing Model for Managing Relationships’
, Journal of Marketing62(2) (April):
1–13
.
20.
Dunn, S.W.
(1969) Advertising: Its Role in Modern
Marketing(2nd Ed.).
New York: Hold Rinehart and Winston
.
21.
Edell, J.A.
and
Keller, L.K.
(1989)
‘The Information Processing Coordinated Media Campaign’
, Journal of Marketing Research26(2) (May):
149–163
.
22.
Fill, C.
(2001)
‘Essentially a Matter of Consistency: Integrated Marketing Communications’
, The Marketing Review1(4):
409–425
.
23.
Friestad, M.
and
Wright, P.
(1994)
‘The Persuasion Knowledge Model: How People Cope with Persuasion Attempts’
, Journal of Consumer Research21(1) (June):
1–31
.
24.
Gerbner, G.
,
Gross, L.
,
Morgan, M.
,
Signorielli, N.
and
Shanahan, J.
(2002) ‘Growing Up With Television: Cultivation
Processes’, in
J. Bryant
and
D. Zillmann
(eds) Media Effects, pp. 43–68.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
.
25.
Gould, S.J.
(2000)
‘The State of IMC Research and Applications’
, Journal of Advertising Research40(6):
22–23
.
26.
Graber, D.A.
(1997) Mass Media and American Politics(5th
Ed.).
Washington, DC: CQ Press
.
27.
Grass, R.C.
and
Wallace, H.W.
(1969)
‘Satiation Effects of TV Commercials’
, Journal of Advertising Research9(3) (June):
3–8
.
28.
Greenberg, A.
and
Suttoni, C.
(1973)
‘Television Commercial Wearout’
, Journal of Advertising Research13(5) (October):
47–54
.
29.
Ha, L.
(1996)
‘Observations: Advertising Clutter in Consumer Magazines:
Dimensions and Effects’
, Journal of Advertising Research36(4) (July/August):
76–84
.
30.
Homans, G.C.
(1961) Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms.
New York: Harcourt, Brace and World
.
31.
Hovland, C.I.
and
Sears, R.R.
(1940)
‘Minor Studies of Aggression: Correlations of Lynchings with
Economic Indices’
, Journal of Psychology9:
301–310
.
32.
Keller, K.L.
(1987)
‘Memory Factors in Advertising: The Effect of Advertising
Retrieval Cues on Brand Evaluations’
, Journal of Consumer Research14(4):
316–333
.
33.
Keller, K.L.
(1991)
‘Memory and Evaluation Effects in Competitive Advertising Environment’
, Journal of Consumer Research17(1):
463–476
.
34.
Keller, L.K.
(2001)
‘Mastering the Marketing Communications Mix: Micro and Macro
Perspectives on Integrated Marketing Communication Programs’
, Journal of Marketing Management17(7–8):
819–847
.
35.
Kent, R.J.
(1993)
‘Competitive Versus Noncompetitive Clutter in Television Advertising’
, Journal of Advertising Research33(2):
40–46
.
36.
Kent, R.J.
and
Allen, C.T.
(1997)
‘Competitive Interference Effects in Consumer Memory for
Advertising: The Role of Brand Familiarity’
, Journal of Marketing58(3) (July):
97–105
.
37.
Klapper, J.T.
(1960) The Effects of Mass Communication.
New York:The Free Press
.
38.
Klatzky, R.L.
(1980) Human Memory: Structure and Processes.
San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman
.
39.
Lamb, C.W.
,
Hair, J.F.
and
McDaniel, C.
(2000) Marketing(5th Ed.).
Cincinnati, OH: South-Western
.
Lasswell, H.D.
(1948) ‘The Structure and Function of
Communication in Society’, reprinted in
Schramm, W.
and
Roberts, D.
(eds) (1974) The Process and Effects of Mass Communication, pp.
84–99.
Urbana: University of Illinois Press
.
42.
Law, S.
(2002)
‘Can Repeating a Brand Claim Lead to Memory Confusion? The
Effects of Claim Similarity and Concurrent Repetition’
, Journal of Marketing Research39(3) (August):
366–378
.
43.
Leavitt, C.
(1975) ‘Advertising, Marketing Communication,
and Consumer Choice’, in
G. J. Hanneman
and
W. J. McEwen
(eds) Communication and Behavior, pp.
285–303.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley
.
44.
Mackenzie, S.B.
,
Lutz, R.J.
and
Belch, G.E.
(1986)
‘The Role of Attitude Toward the Ad as a Mediator of Advertising
Effectiveness: A Test of Competing Explanations’
, Journal of Marketing Research23(2) (May):
130–143
.
45.
McCombs, M.
(1994) ‘News Influence on Our Pictures of the
World’, in
J. Bryant
and
D. Zillmann
(eds) Media Effects, pp. 1–16.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
.
46.
McGuire, W.J.
(1969) ‘The Nature of Attitudes and Attitude
Change’, in
G. Lindzey
and
E. Aronson
(eds) The Handbook of Social Psychology vol. 3., pp.
136–314.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley
.
47.
McQuail, D.J.
,
Blumler, J.G.
and
Brown, J.R.
(1972) ‘The Television Audience: A Revised
Perspective’, in
D. McQuail
(ed.) Sociology of Mass Communications, pp.
135–165.
Harmondsworth: Penguin
.
48.
Mangleburg, T.F.
and
Bristol, T.
(1998)
‘Socialization and Adolescents’ Skepticism toward Advertising’
, Journal of Advertising27(3):
11–21
.
49.
Nordhielm, C.L.
(2002)
‘The Influence of Level of Processing on Advertising Repetition Effects’
, Journal of Consumer Research29(3) (December):
371–382
.
50.
O’Guinn, T.C.
and
Faber, R.J.
(1991) ‘Mass Communication and Consumer
Behavior’, in
T.S. Robertson
and
H.H. Kassarjian
(eds) Handbook of Consumer Behavior, pp.
349–400.
Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
.
51.
O’Guinn, T.C.
,
Allen, C.T.
and
Semenik, R.J.
(2000) Advertising(2nd Ed.).
Cincinnati, OH: South Western
.
52.
O’Keefe, D.J.
(2002) Persuasion: Theory and Research(2nd
Ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
.
53.
Paisley, W.
(1972) Communication Research as a Behavioral
Discipline.
Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Institute
for Communication Research
.
54.
Pasadeos, Y.
,
Phelps, J.
and
Kim, B.
(1998)
‘Disciplinary Impact of Advertising Scholars: Temporal
Comparisons of Influential Authors, Works and Research Networks’
, Journal of Advertising27(4):
53–70
.
55.
Pearl, D.
,
Bouthilet, L.
and
Lazar, J.
(1982) Television and Behavior: Ten Years of Scientific
Progress and Implications for the Eighties. Vol. 1: Summary Report.
Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office
.
56.
Pechmann, C.
and
Stewart, D.
(1988)
‘Advertising Repetition: A Critical Review of Wearin and Wearout’
, Current Issues and Research in Advertising11(2):
285–330
.
57.
Petty, R.E.
and
Cacioppo, J.T.
(1981) Attitudes and Persuasion: Classic and Contemporary
Approaches.
Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown
.
58.
Petty, R.E.
,
Cacioppo, J.T.
and
Schumann, D.
(1983)
‘Central and Peripheral Routes to Advertising Effectiveness: The
Moderating Role of Involvement’
, Journal of Consumer Research, 10(2) (September):
135–146
.
59.
Ray, M.L.
and
Swayer, A.G.
(1971)
‘Repetition in Media Models: A Laboratory Technique’
, Journal of Marketing Research8(1) (February):
20–29
.
60.
Rethans, A.J.
,
Swasy, J.L.
and
Marks, L.J.
(1986)
‘Effects of Television Commercial Repetition, Receiver Knowledge,
and Commercial Length: A Test of the Two-Factor Model’
, Journal of Marketing Research23(1) (February):
50–61
.
61.
Reynolds, P.D.
(1971) A Primer in Theory Construction.
Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill
.
62.
Richards, J.I.
and
Curran, C.M.
(2002)
‘“Oracles on ‘Advertising”:
Searching for a Definition’
, Journal of Advertising31(2):
63–78
.
63.
Runyon, K.E.
(1979) Advertising and the Practice of Marketing.
Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill
.
64.
Schmidt, R.
(1999) ‘Learning and Memory, Neurochemical
Aspects’, in
G. Adelman
and
B. Smith
(eds) Encyclopedia of Neuroscience(2nd Ed.), pp.
1042–1044.
Amsterdam: Elsevier
.
65.
Schramm, W.
(1973) Men, Messages, and Media: A Look at Human
Communication.
New York: Harper & Row
.
66.
Shoemaker, P.J.
and
Reese, S.D.
(1996) Mediating the Message.
White Plains, NY: Longman
.
67.
Simonson, I.
,
Carmon, Z.
,
Dhar, R.
,
Drolet, A.
and
Nowlis, S.M.
(2001)
‘Consumer Research: In Search of Identity’
, Annual Review of Psychology52(1):
249–275
.
68.
Starch, D.
(1923) Principles of Advertising.
Chicago, IL: A.W. Shaw
.
69.
Stewart, D.W.
(1989)
‘Measures, Methods, and Models in Advertising Research’
, Journal of Advertising Research29(3):
54–61
.
70.
Tan, A.S.
(1981) Mass Communication Theories and Research.
Columbus, OH: Grid Publishing
.
71.
Tolman, E.C.
(1942) Drives Toward War.
New York: Appleton-Century
.
72.
Unnava, R.H.
and
Burnkrant, R.E.
(1991)
‘Effects of Repeating Varied Ad Executions on Brand Name Memory’
, Journal of Marketing Research28(4) (November):
406–416
.
73.
Weaver, D.H.
(1996)
‘What Voters Learn from Media’
, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science546 (July):
34–47
.
74.
Webb, P.H.
(1979)
‘Consumer Initial Processing in a Difficult Media Environment’
, Journal of Consumer Research6(3):
225–236
.
75.
Webb, P.H.
and
Ray, M.L.
(1979)
‘Effects of TV Clutter’
, Journal of Advertising Research19(3):
7–12
.
76.
Wells, W.
,
Burnett, J.
and
Moriarty, S.
(1998) Advertising Principles and Practices(4th
Ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall
.
77.
Wright, C.
(1986) Mass Communication: A Sociological
Perspective(3rd Ed.).
New York: Random House
.
78.
Young, D.R.
and
Bellaza, F.S.
(1982)
‘Encoding Variability, Memory Organization, and the Repetition Effect’
, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition8(6):
545–559
.
79.
Zhao, X.
(1997)
‘Clutter and Serial Order Redefined and Retested’
, Journal of Advertising Research37(5):
57–73
.
